Methods for Generating Hypermutable Microbes

ABSTRACT

Bacteria are manipulated to create desirable output traits using dominant negative alleles of mismatch repair proteins. Enhanced hypermutation is achieved by combination of mismatch repair deficiency and exogenously applied mutagens. Stable bacteria containing desirable output traits are obtained by restoring mismatch repair activity to the bacteria.

This application claims the benefit of provisional application Ser. No. 60/181,929 filed Feb. 11, 2000.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention is related to the area of mismatch repair genes. In particular it is related to the field of in situ mutagenesis of single celled organisms.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Within the past four years, the genetic cause of the Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer Syndrome (HNPCC), also known as Lynch syndrome II, has been ascertained for the majority of kindred's affected with the disease (14). The molecular basis of HNPCC involves genetic instability resulting from defective mismatch repair (MMR). Several genes have been identified in humans that encode for proteins and appear to participate in the MMR process, including the mutS homologs GTBP, hMSH2, and hMSH3 and the mutL homologs hMLH1, hMLH3, hPMS1, and hPMS2 (4, 9, 11, 17, 19, 22, 24, 38). Germline mutations in four of these genes (hMSH2, hMLH1, hPMS1, and hPMS2) have been identified in HNPCC kindred's (13). Though the mutator defect that arises from the MMR deficiency can affect any DNA sequence, microsatellite sequences are particularly sensitive to MMR abnormalities (14, 25, 27, 29). Microsatellite instability (MI) is therefore a useful indicator of defective MMR. In addition to its occurrence in virtually all tumors arising in HNPCC patients, MI is found in a small fraction of sporadic tumors with distinctive molecular and phenotypic properties (13).

HNPCC is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion, so that the normal cells of affected family members contain one mutant allele of the relevant MMR gene (inherited from an affected parent) and one wild-type allele (inherited from the unaffected parent). During the early stages of tumor development, however, the wild-type allele is inactivated through a somatic mutation, leaving the cell with no functional MMR gene and resulting in a profound defect in MMR activity. Because a somatic mutation in addition to a germ-line mutation is required to generate defective MMR in the tumor cells, this mechanism is generally referred to as one involving two hits, analogous to the biallelic inactivation of tumor suppressor genes that initiate other hereditary cancers. In line with this two-hit mechanism, the non-neoplastic cells of HNPCC patients generally retain near normal levels of MMR activity due to the presence of the wild-type allele (11, 13, 24). In addition, similar findings are observed in other diploid organisms (2, 5, 8).

The ability to alter signal transduction pathways by manipulation of a gene product's function, either by over-expression of the wild type protein or a fragment thereof, or by introduction of mutations into specific protein domains of the protein, the so-called dominant-negative inhibitory mutant, were described over a decade ago in the yeast system Saccharomyces cerevisiae by Herskowitz (Nature 329:219-222, 1987). It has been demonstrated that over-expression of wild type gene products can result in a similar, dominant-negative inhibitory phenotype due most likely to the “saturating-out” of a factor, such as a protein, that is present at low levels and necessary for activity; removal of the protein by binding to a high level of its cognate partner results in the same net effect, leading to inactivation of the protein and the associated signal transduction pathway.

Recently, work done by Nicolaides et. al. (32) has demonstrated the utility of introducing dominant negative inhibitory mismatch repair mutants into mammalian cells to confer global DNA hypermutability. There is a need in the art for additional techniques for generating mutations in bacteria

which can be used to make strains for production, biocatalysis, bioremediation, and drug discovery.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It is an object of the present invention to provide a method for rendering bacterial cells hypermutable.

It is another object of the present invention to provide genetically altered bacteria.

It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method to produce bacteria that are hypermutable.

It is an object of the invention to provide a method to inactivate the process that results in hypermutable cells following strain selection.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a method of mutating a gene of interest in a bacterium.

These and other embodiments of the invention are provided by one or more of the embodiments described below. In one embodiment, a method is provided for making a hypermutable bacteria. A polynucleotide comprising a dominant negative allele of a mismatch repair gene is introduced into a bacterium, whereby the cell becomes hypermutable. Preferably the allele is under the control of an inducible transcription regulatory sequence.

According to another aspect of the invention a homogeneous composition of cultured, hypermutable, bacteria is provided. The bacteria comprise a dominant negative allele of a mismatch repair gene. Preferably the allele is under the control of an inducible transcription regulatory sequence.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a method for generating a mutation in a gene of interest. A bacterial culture comprising the gene of interest and a dominant negative allele of a mismatch repair gene is grown. The cell is hypermutable. It is tested to determine whether the gene of interest harbors a mutation. Preferably the allele is under the control of an inducible transcription regulatory sequence.

According to still another aspect of the invention a method for generating a mutation in a gene of interest is provided. A bacterium comprising the gene of interest and a dominant negative allele of a mismatch repair gene is grown to form a population of mutated bacteria. The population of mutated bacteria is cultivated under trait selection conditions. At least one of the cultivated bacteria is tested to determine that the gene of interest harbors a mutation. Preferably the allele is under the control of an inducible transcription regulatory sequence.

Still another aspect of the invention is a method for enhancing the mutation rate of a bacterium. A bacterium comprising a dominant negative allele of an MMR gene is exposed to a mutagen whereby the mutation rate of the bacterium is enhanced in excess of the rate in the absence of mutagen and in excess of the rate in the absence of the dominant negative allele. Preferably the allele is under the control of an inducible transcription regulatory sequence.

Yet another aspect of the invention is a method for generating an MMR-proficient bacterium with a new output trait. A mismatch repair deficient bacterium comprising a gene of interest and a dominant negative allele of a mismatch repair gene is grown to form a population of mutated bacteria. The population of mutated bacteria is cultivated under trait selection conditions. At least one of the cultivated bacteria is tested to determine that the gene of interest harbors a mutation. Mismatch repair activity is restored to the at least one of the cultivated bacteria. Preferably the allele is under the control of an inducible transcription regulatory sequence.

These and other embodiments of the invention provide the art with methods that can generate enhanced mutability in bacteria as well as providing prokaryotic organisms harboring potentially useful mutations to generate novel output traits for commercial applications. The ability to create hypermutable organisms using dominant negative alleles has great commercial value for the generation of innovative bacterial strains that display new output features useful for a variety of applications, including but not limited to the manufacturing industry for the generation of new biochemicals useful for detoxifying noxious chemicals from by-products of manufacturing processes or those used as catalysts, as well as helping in remediation of toxins present in the environment, including but not limited to polychlorobenzenes (PCBs), heavy metals and other environmental hazards for which there is a need to remove them from the environment. In addition to obtaining organisms that are useful for removal of toxins from the environment, novel microbes can be selected for enhanced activity to either produce increased quantity or quality of a protein or non-protein therapeutic molecule by means of biotransformation (3).

Biotransformation is the enzymatic conversion, by a microbe or an extract derived from the microbe, of one chemical intermediate to the next product. There are many examples of biotransformation in use for the commercial manufacturing of important biological and chemical products, including Penicillin G, Erythromycin, and Clavulanic Acid as well as organisms that are efficient at conversion of “raw” materials to advanced intermediates and/or final products (Berry, A. Trends Biotechnol. 14(7):250-256). The ability to control DNA hypermutability in host bacterial strains using a dominant negative MMR (as described above) allows for the generation of variant subtypes that can be selected for new phenotypes of commercial interest, including but not limited to organisms that are toxin-resistant, have the capacity to degrade a toxin in situ or the ability to convert a molecule from an intermediate to either an advanced intermediate or a final product. Other applications using dominant negative MMR genes to produce genetic alteration of bacterial hosts for new output traits include but are not limited to recombinant production strains that produce higher quantities of a recombinant polypeptide as well as the use of altered endogenous genes that can transform chemical or catalyze manufacturing downstream processes.

This application teaches of the use of a regulatable dominant negative MMR phenotype to produce a prokaryotic strain with a commercially beneficial output trait. Using this process, microbes expressing a dominant negative MMR can be directly selected for the phenotype of interest. Once a selected bacterium with a specified output trait is isolated, the hypermutable activity of the dominant negative MMR allele can be turned-off by several methods well known to those skilled in the art. For example, if the dominant-negative allele is expressed by an inducible promoter system, including but not limited to promoters such as: TAC-LACI, tryp (Brosius et. al. Gene 27:161-172, 1984), araBAD (Guzman et. al., J. Bact. 177:4121-4130, 1995) pLex (La Vallie et. al., Bio. Technology 11:187-193, 1992), pRSET (Schoepfer, R. Gene 124:83-85, 1993), pT7 (Studier J. Mol. Biol. 219(1):37-44, 1991) etc., the inducer is removed and the promoter activity is reduced, or a system that excises the MMR gene insert from the host cells harboring the expression vector such as the Cre-lox (Hasan, N. et. al. Gene 2:51-56, 1994), as well as methods that can homologously knockout of the expression vector. In addition to the recombinant methods outlined above that have the capacity to eliminate the MMR activity from the microbe, it has been demonstrated that many chemicals have the ability to “cure” microbial cells of plasmids. For example, chemical treatment of cells with drugs including bleomycin (Attfield et al. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 27:985-988, 1985) or novobiocin, coumermycin, and quinolones (Fu et al. Chemotherapy 34:415-418, 1988) have been shown to result in microbial cells that lack endogenous plasmid as evidenced by Southern analysis of cured cells as well as sensitivity to the appropriate antibiotic (1, 41-43). Whether by use of recombinant means or treatment of cells with chemicals, removal of the MMR-expression plasmid results in the re-establishment of a genetically stable microbial cell-line. Therefore, the restoration of MMR allows host bacteria to function normally to repair DNA. The newly generated mutant bacterial strain that exhibits a novel, selected output trait is now suitable for a wide range of commercial processes or for gene/protein discovery to identify new biomolecules that are involved in generating a particular output trait.

While it has been documented that MMR deficiency can lead to as much as a 1000-fold increase in the endogenous DNA mutation rate of a host, there is no assurance that MMR deficiency alone will be sufficient to alter every gene within the DNA of the host bacterium to create altered biochemicals with new activity(s). Therefore, the use of chemical agents and their respective analogues such as ethidium bromide, EMS, MNNG, MNU, Tamoxifen, 8-Hydroxyguanine, as well as others listed but not limited to in publications by: Khromov-Borisov, N. N., et. al. (Mutat. Res. 430:55-74, 1999); Ohe, T., et. al. (Mutat. Res. 429:189-199, 1999); Hour, T. C. et. al. (Food Chem. Toxicol. 37:569-579, 1999); Hrelia, P., et. al. (Chem. Biol. Interact. 118:99-111, 1999); Garganta, F., et. al. (Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 33:75-85, 1999); Ukawa-Ishikawa S., et. al. (Mutat. Res. 412:99-107, 1998); www.ehs.utah.edu/ohh/mutagens, etc. can be used to further enhance the spectrum of mutations and increase the likelihood of obtaining alterations in one or more genes that can in turn generate host bacteria with a desired new output trait(s) (10, 39, 40). Prior art teaches that mismatch repair deficiency leads to hosts with an increased resistance to toxicity by chemicals with DNA damaging activity. This feature allows for the creation of additional genetically diverse hosts when mismatch defective bacteria are exposed to such agents, which would be otherwise impossible due to the toxic effects of such chemical mutagens [Colella, G., et. al. (Br. J. Cancer 80:338-343, 1999); Moreland, N. J., et. al. (Cancer Res. 59:2102-2106, 1999); Humbert, O., et. al. (Carcinogenesis 20:205-214, 1999); Glaab, W. E., et. al. (Mutat. Res. 398:197-207, 1998)]. Moreover, prior art teaches that mismatch repair is responsible for repairing chemical-induced DNA adducts, so therefore blocking this process could theoretically increase the number, types, mutation rate and genomic alterations of a bacterial host [Rasmussen, L. J. et. al. (Carcinogenesis 17:2085-2088, 1996); Sledziewska-Gojska, E., et. al. (Mutat. Res. 383:31-37, 1997); and Janion, C. et. al. (Mutat. Res. 210:15-22, 1989)]. In addition to the chemicals listed above, other types of DNA mutagens include ionizing radiation and UV-irradiation, which are known to cause DNA mutagenesis in bacteria can also be used to potentially enhance this process. These agents which are extremely toxic to host cells and therefore result in a decrease in the actual pool size of altered bacterial cells are more tolerated in MMR defective hosts and in turn allow for a enriched spectrum and degree of genomic mutation (7).

This application teaches new uses of MMR deficient bacterial cells to create commercially viable microbes that express novel output traits. Moreover, this application teaches the use of dominant negative MMR genes to decrease the endogenous MMR activity of the host followed by placing the cells under selection to obtain a desired, sought after output trait for commercial applications such as but not limited to recombinant manufacturing, biotransformation and bioremediation. Furthermore, the application teaches the use of restoring MMR activity to the hypermutable bacterial host following strain selection of the variant of interest as a means to genetically “fix” the new mutations in the host genome. The application also teaches the use of enhanced hypermutability in bacteria by using MMR deficiency and chemical or radiation mutagenesis to create variant subtypes of bacteria useful for commercial and other applications. The application describes uses of hypermutable bacteria for producing strains that can be used to generate new output traits for chemical manufacturing, pharmaceutical and other commercially applicable processes.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Western blot of steady-state PMS134 levels in IPTG-treated samples in DH10B strain. Cells containing the pTACPMS134 (lane 2) showed a robust steady state level of protein after induction in contrast to cells expressing empty vector (lane 1). Blots were probed with an anti-human-PMS2 polyclonal antibody.

FIG. 2. Western blot of PMS134V5 and PMSR3V5 in IPTG-treated (+) and untreated (−) samples in BL21 strain. Blots were probed with an anti-V5 antibody, which is directed to the C-terminal tag of each protein.

FIG. 3. Number of Kanamycin resistant PMS134 and vector control DH10B clones. IPTG-induced strains were grown and plated onto KAN plates and grown for 18 hours at 37° C. to identify number of KAN resistant clones due to genetic alteration.

FIG. 4. Number of Kanamycin Resistant PMS134, PMSR3 and vector control BL21 clones. IPTG-induced strains were grown and plated onto AMP and KAN plates and grown for 18 hours at 37° C. to identify number of KAN resistant clones due to genetic alteration.

FIG. 5. (A) Western blot of steady-state ATPMS134flag in IPTG-treated samples in DH10B. Lysates from untransfected cells (lane 1) and a bacterial clone expressing the Arabidopsis thaliana PMS134 truncated protein with a FLAG epitope fused to the C-terminus (ATPMS134flag) (lane 2) were electrophoresed on SDS-PAGE gels. Blots were probed with an anti-FLAG monoclonal antibody directed to the FLAG epitope. (B) Number of Kanamycin Resistant ATPMS134flag and vector control DH10B clones. IPTG-induced strains were grown and plated onto AMP and KAN plates and grown for an additional 18 hours at 37° C. to identify number of KAN resistant clones due to genetic alteration.

FIG. 6. Generation of high recombinant producer BGAL-MOR lines in PMS134 expressing DH5alpha host strains.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The inventors present a method for developing hypermutable bacteria by altering the activity of endogenous mismatch repair activity of hosts. Wild type and some dominant negative alleles of mismatch repair genes, when introduced and expressed in bacteria, increase the rate of spontaneous mutations by reducing the effectiveness of the endogenous MMR-mediated DNA repair activity, thereby rendering the bacteria highly susceptible to genetic alterations due to hypermutability. Hypermutable bacteria can then be utilized to screen for novel mutations in a gene or a set of genes that produce variant siblings that exhibit a new output trait(s) not found in the wild type cells.

The process of mismatch repair, also called mismatch proofreading, is an evolutionarily highly conserved process that is carried out by protein complexes described in cells as disparate as prokaryotic cells such as bacteria to more complex mammalian cells (14, 29, 31, 33, 34). A mismatch repair gene is a gene that encodes one of the proteins of such a mismatch repair complex. Although not wanting to be bound by any particular theory of mechanism of action, a mismatch repair complex is believed to detect distortions of the DNA helix resulting from non-complementary pairing of nucleotide bases. The non-complementary base on the newer DNA strand is excised, and the excised base is replaced with the appropriate base that is complementary to the older DNA strand. In this way, cells eliminate many mutations that occur as a result of mistakes in DNA replication, resulting in genetic stability of the sibling cells derived from the parental cell.

Some wild type alleles as well as dominant negative alleles cause a mismatch repair defective phenotype even in the presence of a wild-type allele in the same cell. An example of a dominant negative allele of a mismatch repair gene is the human gene hPMS2-134, which carries a truncation mutation at codon 134 (32). The mutation causes the product of this gene to abnormally terminate at the position of the 134th amino acid, resulting in a shortened polypeptide containing the N-terminal 133 amino acids. Such a mutation causes an increase in the rate of mutations, which accumulate in cells after DNA replication. Expression of a dominant negative allele of a mismatch repair gene results in impairment of mismatch repair activity, even in the presence of the wild-type allele. Any mismatch repair allele, which produces such effect, can be used in this invention. In addition, the use of over-expressed wildtype MMR gene alleles from human, mouse, plants, and yeast in bacteria has been shown to cause a dominant negative effect on the bacterial hosts MMR activity (9, 33, 34, 38).

Dominant negative alleles of a mismatch repair gene can be obtained from the cells of humans, animals, yeast, bacteria, plants or other organisms. Screening cells for defective mismatch repair activity can identify such alleles. Mismatch repair genes may be mutant or wild type. Bacterial host MMR may be mutated or not. The term bacteria used in this application include any organism from the prokaryotic kingdom. These organisms include genera such as but not limited to Agrobacterium, Anaerobacter, Aquabacterium, Azorhizobium, Bacillus, Bradyrhizobium, Cryobacterium, Escherichia, Enterococcus, Heliobacterium, Klebsiella, Lactobacillus, Methanococcus, Methanothermobacter, Micrococcus, Mycobacterium, Oceanomonas, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Streptomyces, Thermusaquaticus, Thermaerobacter, Thermobacillus, etc. Other procaryotes that can be used for this application are listed at (www.bacterio.cict.fr/validgenericnames). Bacteria exposed to chemical mutagens or radiation exposure can be screened for defective mismatch repair. Genomic DNA, cDNA, or mRNA from any cell encoding a mismatch repair protein can be analyzed for variations from the wild type sequence. Dominant negative alleles of a mismatch repair gene can also be created artificially, for example, by producing variants of the hPMS2-134 allele or other mismatch repair genes (32). Various techniques of site-directed mutagenesis can be used. The suitability of such alleles, whether natural or artificial, for use in generating hypermutable bacteria can be evaluated by testing the mismatch repair activity (using methods described in ref 32) caused by the allele in the presence of one or more wild-type alleles, to determine if it is a dominant negative allele.

A bacterium that over-expresses a wild type mismatch repair allele or a dominant negative allele of a mismatch repair gene will become hypermutable. This means that the spontaneous mutation rate of such bacteria is elevated compared to bacteria without such alleles. The degree of elevation of the spontaneous mutation rate can be at least 2-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 50-fold, 100-fold, 200-fold, 500-fold, or 1000-fold that of the normal bacteria as measured as a function of bacterial doubling/minute.

According to one aspect of the invention, a polynucleotide encoding either a wild type or a dominant negative form of a mismatch repair protein is introduced into bacteria. The gene can be any dominant negative allele encoding a protein which is part of a mismatch repair complex, for example, mutS, mutL, mutH, or mutY homologs of the bacterial, yeast, plant or mammalian genes (14, 28). The dominant negative allele can be naturally occurring or made in the laboratory. The polynucleotide can be in the form of genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA, or a chemically synthesized polynucleotide or polypeptide. The molecule can be introduced into the cell by transfection, transformation, conjugation, fusion, or other methods well described in the literature.

Any process can be used whereby a polynucleotide or polypeptide is introduced into a cell. The process of gene transfer can be carried out in a bacterial culture using a suspension culture. The bacteria can be any type classified under the prokaryotes.

In general, gene transfer will be carried out using a suspension of cells but other methods can also be employed as long as a sufficient fraction of the treated cells incorporate the polynucleotide or polypeptide so as to allow recipient cells to be grown and utilized. The protein product of the polynucleotide may be transiently or stably expressed in the cell. Techniques for gene transfer are well known to those skilled in the art. Available techniques to introduce a polynucleotide or polypeptide into a prokaryote include but are not limited to electroporation, transduction, cell fusion, the use of chemically competent cells (e.g. calcium chloride), and packaging of the polynucleotide together with lipid for fusion with the cells of interest. Once a cell has been transformed with the dominant negative mismatch repair gene or protein, the cell can be propagated and manipulated in either liquid culture or on a solid agar matrix, such as a petri dish. If the transfected cell is stable, the gene will be retained and expressed at a consistent level when the promoter is constitutively active, or when in the presence of appropriate inducer molecules when the promoter is inducible, for many cell generations, and a stable, hypermutable bacterial strain results.

An isolated bacterial cell is a clone obtained from a pool of a bacterial culture by chemically selecting out non-recipient strains using, for example, antibiotic selection of an expression vector. If the bacterial cell is derived from a single cell, it is defined as a clone.

A polynucleotide encoding a dominant negative form of a mismatch repair protein can be introduced into the genome of a bacterium or propagated on an extra-chromosomal plasmid. Selection of clones harboring the mismatch repair gene expression vector can be accomplished by addition of any of several different antibiotics, including but not limited to ampicillin, kanamycin, chloramphenicol, zeocin, and tetracycline. The microbe can be any species for which suitable techniques are available to produce transgenic microorganisms, such as but not limited to genera including Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Escherichia and others.

Any method for making transgenic bacteria known in the art can be used. According to one process of producing a transgenic microorganism, the polynucleotide is transfected into the microbe by one of the methods well known to those in the art. Next, the microbial culture is grown under conditions that select for cells in which the polynucleotide encoding the mismatch repair gene is either incorporated into the host genome as a stable entity or propagated on a self-replicating extra-chromosomal plasmid, and the protein encoded by the polynucleotide fragment transcribed and subsequently translated into a functional protein within the cell. Once transgenic microbe is engineered to harbor the expression construct, it is then propagated to generate and sustain a culture of transgenic microbes indefinitely.

Once a stable, transgenic microorganism has been engineered to express a functional mismatch repair (MMR) protein, the microbe can be exploited to create novel mutations in one or more target gene(s) of interest harbored within the same microorganism. A gene of interest can be any gene naturally possessed by the bacterium or one introduced into the bacterial host by standard recombinant DNA techniques. The target gene(s) may be known prior to the selection or unknown. One advantage of employing such transgenic microbes to induce mutations in resident or extra-chromosomal genes within the microbe is that it is unnecessary to expose the microorganism to mutagenic insult, whether it be chemical or radiation in nature, to produce a series of random gene alterations in the target gene(s). This is due to the highly efficient nature and the spectrum of naturally occurring mutations that result as a consequence of the altered mismatch repair process. However, it is possible to increase the spectrum and frequency of mutations by the concomitant use of either chemicals and/or radiation together with MMR defective cells. These include DNA mutagens, DNA alkylating agents, DNA intercalating agents, DNA oxidizing agents, ionizing raditation, and ultraviolet radiation. The net effect of the combination treatment is the increase in altered gene pool in the genetically altered microbe that result in an increased alteration of an allele(s) that are useful for producing new output traits. Another benefit of using MMR-defective microbes that are taught in this application is that one can perform a genetic screen for the direct selection of variant sub-clones that exhibit new output traits with commercially important applications. This allows one to bypass tedious and time consuming gene identification, isolation and characterization.

Mutations can be detected by analyzing the recombinant microbe for alterations in the genotype and/or phenotype post-activation of the decreased mismatch repair activity of the transgenic microorganism. Novel genes that produce altered phenotypes in MMR-defective microbial cells can be discerned by any variety of molecular techniques well known to those in the art. For example, the microbial genome can be isolated and a library of restriction fragments cloned into a plasmid vector. The library can be introduced into a “normal” cell and the cells exhibiting the novel phenotype screened. A plasmid is isolated from those normal cells that exhibit the novel phenotype and the gene(s) characterized by DNA sequence analysis. Alternatively, differential messenger RNA screen can be employed utilizing driver and tester RNA (derived from wild type and novel mutant respectively) followed by cloning the differential transcripts and characterizing them by standard molecular biology methods well known to those skilled in the art. Furthermore, if the mutant sought is on encoded by an extrachromosmal plasmid, then following co-expression of the dominant negative MMR gene and the gene of interest to be altered and phenotypic selection, the plasmid is isolated from mutant clones and analyzed by DNA sequence analysis by methods well known to those in the art. Phenotypic screening for output traits in MMR-defective mutants can be by biochemical activity and/or a physical phenotype of the altered gene product. A mutant phenotype can also be detected by identifying alterations in electrophoretic mobility, DNA binding in the case of transcription factors, spectroscopic properties such as IR, CD, X-ray crystallography or high field NMR analysis, or other physical or structural characteristics of a protein encoded by a mutant gene. It is also possible to screen for altered novel function of a protein in situ, in isolated form, or in model systems. One can screen for alteration of any property of the microorganism associated with the function of the gene of interest, whether the gene is known prior to the selection or unknown. The aforementioned screening and selection discussion is meant to illustrate the potential means of obtaining novel mutants with commercially valuable output traits.

Plasmid expression vectors that harbor the mismatch repair (MMR) gene inserts can be used in combination with a number of commercially available regulatory sequences to control both the temporal and quantitative biochemical expression level of the dominant negative MMR protein. The regulatory sequences can be comprised of a promoter, enhancer or promoter/enhancer combination and can be inserted either upstream or downstream of the MMR gene to control the expression level. The regulatory promoter sequence can be any of those well known to those in the art, including but not limited to the lacI, tetracycline, tryptophan-inducible, phosphate inducible, T7-polymerase-inducible (30), and steroid inducible constructs as well as sequences which can result in the excision of the dominant negative mismatch repair gene such as those of the Cre-Lox system. These types of regulatory systems are familiar to those skilled in the art.

Once a microorganism with a novel, desired output trait of interest is created, the activity of the aberrant MMR activity can beattenuated or eliminated by any of a variety of methods, including removal of the inducer from the culture medium that is responsible for promoter activation, gene disruption of the aberrant MMR gene constructs, electroporation and/or chemical curing of the expression plasmids (Brosius, Biotechnology 10:205-225, 1988; Wang et al., J. of Fujian Agricultural University 28:43-46, 1999; Fu et. al., Chem Abstracts 34:415-418, 1988). The resulting microbe is now useful as a stable strain that can be applied to various commercial applications, depending upon the selection process placed upon it.

In cases where genetically deficient mismatch repair bacteria [strains such as but not limited to: M1 (mutS) and in EC2416 (mutS delta umuDC), and mutL or mutY strains] are used to derive new output traits, transgenic constructs can be used that express wild-type mismatch repair genes sufficient to complement the genetic defect and therefore restore mismatch repair activity of the host after trait selection [Grzesiuk, E. et. al. (Mutagenesis 13:127-132, 1998); Bridges, B. A., et. al. (EMBO J. 16:3349-3356, 1997); LeClerc, J. E., Science 15:1208-1211, 1996); Jaworski, A. et. al. (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 92:11019-11023, 1995)]. The resulting microbe is genetically stable and can be applied to various commercial practices.

The use of over expressing foreign mismatch repair genes from human and yeast such as PMS1, MSH2, MLH1, MLH3, etc. have been previously demonstrated to produce a dominant negative mutator phenotype in bacterial hosts (35, 36, 37). In addition, the use of bacterial strains expressing prokaryotic dominant negative MMR genes as well as hosts that have genomic defects in endogenous MMR proteins have also been previously shown to result in a dominant negative mutator phenotype (29,32). However, the findings disclosed here teach the use of MMR genes, including the human PMSR2 and PMSR3 gene (ref 19), the related PMS134 truncated MMR gene (ref 32), the plant mismatch repair genes (SARAH include Plant patent application) and those genes that are homologous to the 134 N-terminal amino acids of the PMS2 gene which include the MutL family of MMR proteins and including the PMSR and PMS2L homologs described by Hori et. al. (accession number NM_(—)005394 and NM_(—)005395) and Nicolaides (reference 19) to create hypermutable microbes. In addition, this application teaches the use of DNA mutagens in combination with MMR defective microbial hosts to enhance the hypermutable production of genetic alterations. This accentuates MMR activity for generation of microorganisms with commercially relevant output traits such as but not limited to recombinant protein production strains, biotransformation, and bioremediation.

The above disclosure generally describes the present invention. A more complete understanding can be obtained by reference to the following specific examples that will be provided herein for purposes of illustration only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention

EXAMPLES Example 1 Generation of Inducible MMR Dominant Negative Allele Vectors

Bacterial expression constructs were prepared to determine if the human PMS2 related gene (hPMSR3) (19) and the human PMS134 gene (32) are capable of inactivating the bacterial MMR activity and thereby increase the overall frequency of genomic hypermutation, a consequence of which is the generation of variant sib cells with novel output traits following host selection. Moreover, the use of regulatable expression vectors will allow for suppression of dominant negative MMR alleles and restoration of the MMR pathway and genetic stability in hosts cells (43). For these studies, a plasmid encoding the hPMS134 cDNA was altered by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The 5′ oligonucleotide has the following structure: 5′-ACG CAT ATG GAG CGA GCT GAG AGC TCG AGT-3′ that includes the NdeI restriction site CAT ATG. The 3′-oligonucleotide has the following structure: 5′-GAA TTC TTA TCA CGT AGA ATC GAG ACC GAG GAG AGG GTT AGG GAT AGG CTT ACC AGT TCC AAC CTT CGC CGA TGC-3′ that includes an EcoRI site GAA TTC and the 14 amino acid epitope for the V5 antibody. The oligonucleotides were used for PCR under standard conditions that included 25 cycles of PCR (95° C. for 1 minute, 55° C. for 1 minute, 72° C. for 1.5 minutes for 25 cycles followed by 3 minutes at 72° C.). The PCR fragment was purified by gel electrophoresis and cloned into pTA2.1 (InVitrogen) by standard cloning methods (Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Edition, 2001), creating the plasmid pTA2.1-hPMS134. pTA2.1-hPMS134 was digested with the restriction enzyme EcoRI to release the insert (there are two EcoRI restriction sites in the multiple cloning site of pTA2.1 that flank the insert) and the fragment filled in with Klenow fragment and dNTPs. Next, the fragment was gel purified, then digested with NdeI and inserted in pT7-Ea that had been digested with NdeI and BamHI (filled with Klenow) and phosphatase treated. The new plasmid was designated pT7-Ea-hPMS134. The following strategy, similar to that described above to clone human PMS134, was used to construct an expression vector for the human related gene PMSR3. First, the hPMSR3 fragment was amplified by PCR to introduce two restriction sites, an NdeI restriction site at the 5′-end and an Eco RI site at the 3′-end of the fragment. The 5′-oligonucleotide that was used for PCR has the following structure: 5′-ACG CAT ATG TGT CCT TGG CGG CCT AGA-3′ that includes the NdeI restriction site CAT ATG. The 3′-oligonucleotide used for PCR has the following structure: 5′-GAA TTC TTA TTA CGT AGA ATC GAG ACC GAG GAG AGG GTT AGG GAT AGG CTT ACC CAT GTG TGA TGT TTC AGA GCT-3′ that includes an EcoRI site GAA TTC and the V5 epitope to allow for antibody detection. The plasmid that contained human PMSR3 in pBluescript SK (19) was used as the PCR target with the hPMS2-specific oligonucleotides above. Following 25 cycles of PCR (95° C. for 1 minute, 55° C. for 1 minute, 72° C. for 1.5 minutes for 25 cycles followed by 3 minutes at 72° C.). The PCR fragment was purified by gel electrophoresis and cloned into pTA2.1 (InVitrogen) by standard cloning methods (Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Edition, 2001), creating the plasmid pTA2.1-hR3. pTA2.1-hR3 was next digested with the restriction enzyme EcoRI to release the insert (there are two EcoRI restriction sites in the multiple cloning site of pTA2.1 that flank the insert) and the fragment filled in with Klenow fragment and dNTPs. Then, the fragment was gel purified, then digested with NdeI and inserted in pT7-Ea that had been digested with NdeI and BamHI (filled with Klenow) and phosphatase treated. The new plasmid was designated pT7-Ea-hR3.

BL21 cells harbor an additional expression vector for the lysozyme protein, which has been demonstrated to bind to the T7 polymerase in situ; this results in a bacterial strain that has very low levels of T7 polymerase expression. However, upon addition of the inducer IPTG, the cells express high-levels of T7 polymerase due to the IPTG-inducible element that drives expression of the polymerase that is resident within the genome of the BL21 cells (30). The BL21 cells are chloramphenicol resistant due to the plasmid that expresses lysozyme within the cell. To introduce the pT7-hPMS134 or the pT7-hPMSR3 genes into BL21 cells, the cells were made competent by incubating the cells in ice cold 50 mM CaCl₂ for 20 minutes, followed by concentrating the cells and adding super-coiled plasmid DNA as describe (Maniatis, T. et. al. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Third Edition, 2001). Ampicillin resistant BL21 were selected on LB-agar plates [5% yeast extract, 10% bactotryptone, 5% NaCl, 1.5% bactoagar, pH 7.0 (Difco)] plates containing 25 μg/ml chloramphenicol and 100 μg/ml ampicillin. The next day, bacterial colonies were picked and analyzed for vectors containing an intact pTACPMS134 or pTAC empty vector by restriction endonuclease digestion and sequence analysis.

In addition to constructing a V5-epitope tagged PMS134 construct we also constructed and tested a non-epitope tagged version. This was prepared to demonstrate that the simple fact of epitope tagging the construct did not result in alteration of the dominant-negative phenotype that PMS134 has on mismatch repair activity. For these studies, a BamHI restriction fragment containing the hPMS134 cDNA was filled-in with Klenow fragment and then sub-cloned into a Klenow-filled blunt-ended NdeI-XhoI site of the pTACLAC expression vector, which contains the isopropylthio-β-galactosidase (IPTG)-inducible bacterial TAC promoter and ampicillin resistance gene as selectable marker. The NdeI-XhoI cloning site is flanked by the TACLAC promoter that contains the LacI repressor site followed by a Shine Dalgarno ribosome-binding site at the 5′ flanking region and the T1T2 ribosomal RNA terminator in the 3′ flanking region. The TACLAC vector also contains the LacI gene, which is constitutively expressed by the TAC promoter.

DH10B bacterial cells containing the pBCSK vector (Stratagene), which constitutively expresses the β-galactosidase gene and contains the chloramphenicol resistance marker for selection, were made competent via the CaCl₂ method (Maniatis, T. et. al. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1982). This vector turns bacterial cells blue when grown in the presence of IPTG and X-gal that aids in the detection of bacterial colonies. Competent cells were transfected with the pTAC empty vector or the pTACPMS134 vector following the heat-shock protocol. Transfected cultures were plated onto LB-agar [5% yeast extract, 10% bactotryptone, 5% NaCl, 1.5% bactoagar, pH 7.0 (Difco)] plates containing 25 μg/ml chloramphenicol and 100 μg/ml ampicillin. The next day, bacterial colonies were picked and analyzed for vectors containing an intact pTACPMS134 or pTAC empty vector by restriction endonuclease digestion and sequence analysis. Ten clones of each bacteria containing correct empty or PMS134 inserts were then grown to confluence overnight in LB media (5% yeast extract, 10% bactotryptone, 5% NaCl, pH 7.0) containing 10 μg/ml chloramphenicol and 50 μg/ml ampicillin. The next day TAC empty or pTACPMS134 cultures were diluted 1:4 in LB medium plus 50 μM IPTG (Gold Biotechnology) and cultures were grown for 12 and 24 hours at 37° C. After incubation, 50 μl aliquots were taken from each culture and added to 150 μls of 2×SDS buffer and cultures were analyzed for PMS134 protein expression by western blot.

Western blots were carried out as follows. 50 μls of each PMS134 or empty vector culture was directly lysed in 2× lysis buffer (60 mM Tris, pH 6.8, 2% SDS, 10% glycerol, 0.1 M 2-mercaptoethanol, 0.001% bromophenol blue) and samples were boiled for 5 minutes. Lysate proteins were separated by electrophoresis on 4-20% Tris glycine gels (Novex). Gels were electroblotted onto Immobilon-P (Millipore) in 48 mM Tris base, 40 mM glycine, 0.0375% SDS, 20% methanol and blocked overnight at 4° C. in Tris-buffered saline plus 0.05% Tween-20 and 5% condensed milk. Filters were probed with a rabbit polyclonal antibody generated against the N-terminus of the human PMS2 polypeptide (Santa Cruz), which is able to recognize the PMS134 polypeptide (31), followed by a secondary goat anti-rabbit horseradish peroxidase-conjugated antibody. After incubation with the secondary antibody, blots are developed using chemiluminescence (Pierce) and exposed to film to measure PMS134 expression.

As shown in FIG. 1, a robust expression of PMS134 could be detected in bacterial cells containing pTACPMS134 (lane 2) in contrast to cells expressing empty vector (lane 1), which had no signal.

For induction of PMS134 and PMSR3 in BL21 cells, the pT7-Ea-hPMS134 or the pT7-Ea-hPMSR3 cells were induced with 50 μM IPTG for 12 and 24 hours. Cell lysates were prepared and analyzed by western blot listed above using either the N-terminal PMS2 antibody to detect the PMS134 containing cells or the antiV5-horseradish peroxidase conjugated monoclonal antibody (InVitrogen) to detect the PMS134V5 and PMSR3V5 polypeptides. FIG. 2 shows the expression of PMS134V5 and PMSR3V5 before (−) lanes and after IPTG (+) lanes induction.

Example 2 Generation of Hypermutable Bacteria with Inducible Dominant Negative Alleles of Mismatch Repair Genes

Bacterial clones expressing the PMS134 or the empty vector were grown in liquid culture for 24 hr at 37° C. in the presence of 10 μg/ml chloramphenicol and 50 μg/ml ampicillin plus 50 μM IPTG. The next day, cultures were diluted 1:10 in medium containing 50 μM IPTG plus ampicillin/chloramphenicol (AC) or ampicillin/chloramphenicol plus 25 μg/ml kanamycin (ACK) and cultures were grown for 18 hr at 37° C. The following day, a 0.1 μl aliquot (2 μl diluted in 1000 μl of LB medium and used 50 μl for plating) of cells grown in AC medium were plated on LB-agar plates containing 40 μg/ml of 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-B-D-galactoside (X-gal) plus 100 μg/ml ampicillin (AMP), while a 1 μl aliquot (1 μl diluted in 100 μl of LB medium and used 100 μl for plating) of cells grown in ACK medium were plated on LB-agar plates containing X-gal and 50 μg/ml kanamycin (KAN). Plates were incubated for 18 hours at 37° C. The results from these studies show that cells expressing the PMS134 were able to increase hypermutation in the genome of the DH10B bacterial strain which resulted in the production of siblings that exhibit new biological traits such as KAN resistance (FIG. 3).

Kanamycin-resistant assays using BL21 cells expressing the V5-tagged or untagged PMS134 or PMSR3 polypeptides were carried out as described above. BL21 bacterial cells that harbor the empty vector, pT7-PMS134 or pT7-PMSR3 were grown overnight in LB supplemented with 100 ug/ml ampicillin. The overnight cultures were diluted 1:100 into fresh ampicillin containing medium and grown for 2.5 hours at 37° C. with continuous shaking. When the cells reached an optical density (OD) of 0.6, measured at 600 nm, IPTG was added to each culture to a final concentration of 0.5 mM. Cells were incubated for 24, and 48 hours; at those time points cells were removed for SDS-PAGE analysis and plating (see above). BL21/pT7 (empty vector), BL21/pT7-PMS134, and BL21/pT7-R3 cells were plated onto LB plates, LB plates that contained 100 ug/ml ampicillin, and plates that contain 50 ug/ml Kanamycin. The equivalent of 1×10⁷ cells/plate were spread onto the plates. BL21 cells that harbor the empty vector are capable of growth on LB plates as well as LB plates that contain 100 ug/ml ampicillin; that is as expected since the pT7 expression vector renders the cells ampicillin resistant. The vector only control is not capable of growth on Kanamycin. After 24 hr IPTG-induction PMS134 or PMSR3 cells had a significant number of KAN resistant cells while none were observed in BL21 parental cells grown under similar conditions (FIG. 4). Moreover, BL21 cells containing the PMS134 or PMSR3 genes under non-IPTG-induced conditions failed to produce any KAN resistant clones demonstrating the need for expression of the PMS polypeptides for hypermutability. A summary outlining the data and number of Kanamycin resistant bacterial clones is provided in TABLE 1.

TABLE 1 Generation of Kanamycin resistant clones via MMR deficiency # CELLS AMP^(R) KAN^(R) STRAIN SEEDED colonies colonies FREQUENCY DH10B VEC 50,000 62,000 0 0 DH10B PMS134 50,000 43,146 23 5.3 × 10⁻⁴ BL21 VEC 500,000 520,800 0 0 BL21 T7-Ea- 500,000 450,000 2,245 4.9 × 10⁻³ PMS134V5 BL21 T7-Ea- 500,000 500,000 1,535 3.1 × 10⁻³ PMSR3V5 These data demonstrate and enable the proof-of-concept that the use of the dominant negative MMR genes is a viable approach to creating hypermutable bacteria that can lead to the generation of phenotypically diverse offspring when put under selective conditions.

Using the same protocol as listed above and the same cloning strategy, a truncated PMS2 homolog from the Arabidopsis thaliana plant (reference the PLANT patent), which was cloned by degenerate PCR from an Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA library (Strategene), was found to give a similar enhancement of genetic hypermutability in DH5alpha bacteria FIG. 5. For detection purposes, we fused a FLAG epitope to the C-terminus of the PMS134 polypeptide using PCR and an antisense primer directed to the 134 codon region of the Arabidopsis PMS2 homolog followed by a FLAG epitope and 2 termination codons. The resultant fusion was termed ATPMS134-flag. The AT PMS134-flag gene was then cloned into the IPTG-inducible TACLAC expression vector and transfected into DH5alpha cells. Western blot of bacteria transfected with an IPTG-inducible expression vector carrying a truncated version (codons 1-134) of the Arabidopsis thaliana PMS2 homolog using the anti-FLAG antibody demonstrated the inducibility and steady-state protein levels of the chimeric gene. FIG. 5A shows the western blot containing protein from an untransfected cell (lane 1) and a bacterial clone expressing the Arabidopsis PMS2-134 truncated protein (lane 2). Following the mutagenesis protocol described above, bacterial cells expressing the ATPMS134 protein were found to have an increase in the number of KAN resistant cells (12 clones) in contrast to cells expressing the empty vector that yielded no KAN resistant clone.

Bacterial cells such as the pT7-PMS134 and pT7-R3 harboring BL21 cells; the TACLACPMS134 DH10B; the TACLACMLH1 DH10B cells; or the TACLAC-ATPMS134flag DH5alpha cells are capable of growth on LB, LB/ampicillin and LB/KAN plates because the cells have acquired mutations within their genome that render the cell drug resistant. Cells that express dominant negative MMR genes have altered the mismatch control pathway of the microbe, presumably altering a gene or a set of genes that control resistance to kanamycin. A new output trait, Kanamycin-resistance, is generated by expression of the dominant negative MMR gene in these cells. These data demonstrate the ability of dominant negative MMR genes to produce hypermutability across a wide array of bacterial strains to produce new output traits such as Kanamycin resistance.

Example 3 Dominant Negative MMR Genes can Produce New Genetic Variants and Commercially Viable Output Traits in Prokaryotic Organisms

The data presented in EXAMPLE 2 show the ability to generate genetic alterations and new phenotypes in bacterial strains expressing dominant negative MMR genes. In this EXAMPLE we teach the utility of this method to create prokaryotic strains with commercially relevant output traits.

Generation of Heat-Resistant Producer Strains.

One example of commercial utility is the generation of heat-resistant recombinant protein producer strains. In the scalable process of recombinant manufacturing, large-scale fermentation of prokaryotes results in the generation of heat, which leads to suboptimal growth conditions for the producer strain and thus resulting in lower recombinant protein yields. In order to circumvent this problem, we employed the use of DH10B bacteria containing the inducible TACLACPMS134 gene. Briefly, cells were grown in 5 ml LB shake flasks containing ampicillin and IPTG-induced for 0, 24 and 48 hrs at 37 C. Cultures were harvested and then incubated at 100 C for 0, 1 or 10 minutes (times at which 100% of the wild-type strain perishes) and 100 μl aliquots (equivalent to 250,000 cells) were plated onto LB agar plates containing ampicillin to identify heat resistant clones. Table 2 shows a typical experiment whereby cells containing the TACLACPMS134 gene generated a significant number of heat-resistant clones after 48 hours of PMS134 induction and hypermutation via MMR blockade. No or a few clones were observed in the uninduced or 24 hr induced conditions respectively suggesting the needs for multiple rounds of genetic mutation to produce genes that are capable of allowing bacteria to survive under harsh conditions. Similar results were observed with other dominant negative mutants such as the PMSR2, PMSR3, and the human MLH1 proteins (not shown).

TABLE 2 Generation of heat-resistant clones via MMR deficiency Heated Heated Heated Treatment 0 min 1 min 10 min TACLACVEC 250,000 +/− 7,500  0 0  0 hr IPTG TACLACPMS134 265,000 +/− 2,000  0 0  0 hr IPTG TACLACVEC 274,000 +/− 12,000 1 +/− 0 0 24 hr IPTG TACLACPMS134 240,000 +/− 9,400  5 +/− 2 0 24 hr IPTG TACLACVEC 256,000 +/− 12,000 0 0 48 hr IPTG TACLACPMS134 252,000 +/− 14,000 65 +/− 8  3 +/− 1 48 hr IPTG

Generation of High Recombinant Protein Producer Strains.

Next, we tested the ability of bacteria expressing dominant negative MMR genes to produce subclones with enhanced recombinant protein production. In these experiments again we employed the DH10B cells containing the TACLACPMS134 inducible vector plus the pTLACZ vector, which constitutively expresses the β-galactosidase gene. Analysis of individual clones containing the TACLACPMS134 and pTLACZ vector typically produces 10-20 μg/ml of LACZ protein via shake flask fermentation after IPTG induction for 24 hours. To test the hypothesis that high recombinant producer strains can be generated by decreased MMR in bacterial strains, we induced the TACLACPMS134-pTLACZ cells for 48 hours with IPTG as described above. We then diluted the culture 1:50 in LB medium, grew the strain for 24 hours, and plated 10 μls of culture (diluted in 300 μls of LB) onto LB amp-XGAL plates to identify candidate clones that produce robust levels of recombinant LACZ protein. As a control, uninduced cells were treated similarly and plated onto LB amp-XGAL plates. Analysis of the plates revealed a number of bacterial colonies exhibiting a number of clones with an intense BLUE staining in the TACLACPMS134/pTLACZ cells induced with IPTG but none were observed in uninduced clones (FIG. 6). To confirm that these clones produced an enhanced level of LACZ, we expanded 2 clones with an average BLUE stain (BGAL-C1 and BGAL-C2) and 10 clones with a robust BLUE staining (BGAL-MOR1 to BGAL-MOR10). We grew all clones in LB AMP for 24 hours without IPTG and replated the clones. Six out of ten BGAL-MOR clones resulted in a more robust β-gal stain in situ as compared to control “average” cells (BGALC1 and C2). We next performed a more quantitative assay using a β-gal ELISA assay. Briefly, 2 mls of cell centrifuged at 10,000 gs for 10 minutes and resuspended in 0.5 mls of 0.25M Tris, pH 7.5 plus 0.0001% Tween-20. Cells were freeze-thawed 4×'s and vortexed for 4 minutes at room temperature. Lysates were cleared of debris by centrifugation and supernatants were collected. Protein extracts were quantified for total protein using the Bradford assay (BioRad) as described by the manufacturer. Plate ELISAs were carried out by coating 96 well maxisorb (NUNC) plates with 0.1 mls of a 1 μg/ml (diluted in PBS pH7.0) bacterial extract solution and a dose range of recombinant β-GAL (Sigma) from 0.001 to 10 mg/ml. All samples were plated in triplicates. Plates were coated for 2 hours, washed 2 times with PBS and blocked with 0.2 mls of PBS plus 5% powdered milk for 30 minutes. Next, plates were washed once with PBS and incubated with an anti-β-galactosidase monoclonal antibody that recognizes both native and denatured forms (Sigma) for 2 hours. Plates were then washed 3 times with PBS and incubated with 0.1 mls of an anti-mouse horseradish peroxidase conjugated antibody for 1 hour at room temperature. Plates were washed 3 times with PBS and incubated with TMB ELISA substrate (BioRad) for 15 to 30 minutes. Reactions were stopped with 0.1N H₂SO₄ and read on a BioRAD plate reader at 415 nm. The control clones produced roughly 9 and 13 μgs/ml of β-gal while BGAL-MOR clones 2, 3 and 9 produced 106, 82 and 143 μgs/ml of β-gal. To determine if reason that these clones produced more β-gal was due to mutations in the plasmid promoter elements, we isolated the pTLACZ plasmid and retransfected it into DH10B cells as described above. In situ analysis found the resultant clones to produce similar amount of β-gal as that of the control. These data suggest that the BGAL-MOR 2, 3, and 9 hosts had alterations, which results in elevated expression and/or stability of recombinant proteins.

To determine if the enhanced in situ β-gal expression that was observed in BGAL-MOR clones 1, 5, and 6, which did not appear to have enhanced β-gal protein levels (had less than 15 μg/ml as determined by ELISA) was authentic, we performed a more quantitative assay on these lines plus the BGAL-MOR 9, the BGALC1 and C2 lines as control. Cells containing an empty vector (without a LACZ gene) were used as negative control. To measure β-gal activity, we employed a calorimetric β-gal substrate assay using CPRG (Roche) as described (31). Briefly, 5 μgs of protein extract isolated for ELISA analysis (described above) were analyzed using a plate assay. Protein was added to buffer containing 45 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, 1 mM MgCl₂, 0.1 M NaPO₄ and 0.6 mg/ml Chlorophenol red-β-D-galactopyranoside (CPRG, Roche). Reactions were incubated for 1 hour, terminated by the addition of 0.5 M Na₂CO₃, and analyzed by spectrophotometry at 576 nm in a BioRad plate reader. Analysis of these extracts confirmed our in situ data that these cells did have increased β-gal activity (TABLE 3).

TABLE 3 Generation of bacterial clones with increased β-gal enzymatic activity via MMR deficiency. β-gal protein β-gal activity Clone (μg/ml) (O.D. 576) BGAL-C1 9 0.413 +/− .092 BGAL-C2 13 0.393 +/− .105 BGAL-MOR1 14 0.899 +/− .134 BGAL-MOR5 13 0.952 +/− .133 BGAL-MOR6 15 0.923 +/− .100 BGAL-MOR9 143 0.987 +/− .106 Empty vector — 0.132 +/− .036

Because there was no observable increase in the amount of β-gal protein one likely hypothesis is that the β-gal gene structure was mutated during the hypermutability growth stage and now produces a more active enzyme. Sequence analysis confirms that this may be the reason for enhanced activity in a subset of clones.

Together, these data demonstrate the ability to produce genetically altered prokaryotic host strains using dominant negative MMR genes to generate commercially valuable output traits such as high recombinant protein producer lines and structurally altered enzymes with enhanced activities.

Example 4 Mutations in the Host Genome Generated by Defective MMR are Genetically Stable

As described in EXAMPLE 2 and 3, manipulation of the MMR pathway in microbes results in alterations within the host genome and the ability to select for a novel output traits. It is important that the mutations introduced as a result of defective MMR is genetically stable and passed on to daughter cells once a desired output pathway is established. To determine the genetic stability of mutations introduced into the microbial genome the following experiment was performed. Five independent colonies from pT7-PMS134 and pT7-PMSR3 that are kanamycin resistance were grown overnight from an isolated colony in 5 ml of LB. Next, 1 μL of the overnight culture from these cultures were inoculated into another 5 mL of LB and grown overnight to saturation. Under these growth conditions the microbial cells have divided over 20 generations. Therefore, if the new output trait generated by alteration of MMR is unstable, the cells should “revert” back from kanamycin resistance to kanamycin sensitivity. Cells were plated onto LB plates and incubated overnight at 37° C. Next, the colonies (about 1,000/plate) were replica plated to LB, LB^(amp100), and LB^(kan50) plates and incubated at 37° C. overnight. Analysis of clones from these studies reveal that a strict correlation occurs with loss of dominant negative MMR expression and phenotype stability. No loss of KAN resistant clones generated in Example 3 were observed when cells were grown in the absence of IPTG (not expressing PMS134), while 5 revertants out of 1200 were observed in clones the were continually grown in IPTG (express PMS134). Extended culturing of cells and replica plating found no reversions of KAN resistance in cultures grown in the absence of IPTG, which produce no PMS134 as determined by western blot (data not shown).

These data demonstrate the utility of employing inducible expression systems and dominant negative MMR genes in prokaryotes to generate genetically altered strains for commercial applications such as but not limited to enhanced recombinant manufacturing and biotransformation that can then in turn be restored to a genetically stable host with a “fixed” new genotype that is suitable for commercial processes.

Example 5 Enhanced Generation of MMR-Defective Bacteria and Chemical Mutagens for the Generation of New Output Traits

It has been previously documented that MMR deficiency yields to increased mutation frequency and increased resistance to toxic effects of chemical mutagens (CM) and their respective analogues such as but not limited to those as: ethidium bromide, EMS, MNNG, MNU, Tamoxifen, 8-Hydroxyguanine, as well as others listed but not limited to in publications by: Khromov-Borisov, N. N., et. al. (Mutat. Res. 430:55-74, 1999); Ohe, T., et. al. (Mutat. Res. 429:189-199, 1999); Hour, T. C. et. al. (Food Chem. Toxicol. 37:569-579, 1999); Hrelia, P., et. al. (Chem. Biol. Interact. 118:99-111, 1999); Garganta, F., et. al. (Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 33:75-85, 1999); Ukawa-Ishikawa S., et. al. (Mutat. Res. 412:99-107, 1998); www.ehs.utah.edu/ohh/mutagens, etc. To demonstrate the ability of CMs to increase the mutation frequency in MMR defective bacterial cells, we exposed T7-PMS134 BL21 cells to CMs.

T7-PMS134 cells and empty vector control cells were grown with IPTG for 48 hours and then diluted 1:50 in LB plus IPTG and increasing amounts of ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS) from 0, 1, 10, 50, 100, and 200 μM. 10 μL aliquots of culture (diluted in 300 μl LB) were plated out on LB agar plus ampicillin plates and grown overnight at 37 C. The next day plates were analyzed for cell viablility as determined by colony formation. Analysis found that while no significant difference in colony number was observed between the pT7-PMS134 and control at the 0, 1, or 10 uM concentrations (all had >1000 colonies), the number of control cells were reduced to 30 and 0 at the 50 and 100 μM concentrations, respectively. No difference was observed in the pT7-PMS134 cells treated with 0, 1, 10 or 50 μM, while a 3 fold reduction was observed in cultures treated with 100 μM EMS. The 200 μM treatment was toxic for both lines. These data demonstrate the ability of MMR deficiency to protect prokaryotes against the toxic effects of DNA alkylating agents and provides a means to generate a wider range of mutations that can lead to an increased number of genetic variations and an increase in the number of new biochemical activities within host proteins to produce new output traits for commercial applications.

To confirm that MMR deficient bacterial cells treated with CM can result in an increased mutation rate and produce a greater number of variants, we cultured pT7-PMS134 cells and empty vector controls in the presence of IPTG for 48 hours, followed by dilution and regrowth in 25 μM EMS for 24 hours as described above. Cells were plated out on 100 mM petri dishes containing amplicillin or KAN and scored for KAN resistance. Analysis revealed that an 11-fold increase in the generation of KAN resistant cells were found in pT7-Ea-PMS134V5 cells in contrast to control cells.

These data demonstrate the use of employing a regulated dominant negative MMR system plus chemical mutagens to produce enhanced numbers of genetically altered prokaryotic strains that can be selected for new output traits. This methods is now useful generating such organims for commercial applications such as but not limited to recombinant manufacturing, biotransformation, and altered biochemicals (biotransformation) with enhanced activities for manufacturing purposes and gene discovery for pharmaceutical compound development.

Example 6 Alternative Methods to Inhibition of Bacterial MMR Activity

The inhibition of MMR activity in a host organism can be achieved by introducing a dominant negative allele as shown in EXAMPLES 2 and 3. This application also teaches us the use of using regulated systems to control MMR in prokaryotes to generate genetic diversity and output traits for commercial applications. Other ways to regulate the suppression of MMR activity of a host is by using genetic recombination to knock out alleles of a MMR gene that can be spliced out such after selection using a system such as the CRE-Lox system; 2) blocking MMR protein dimerization with other subunits (which is required for activity) by the introduction of polypeptides or antibodies into the host via transfection methods routinely used by those skilled in the art; or 3) decreasing the expression of a MMR gene using anti-sense oligonucleotides.

MMR gene knockouts. We intend to generate disrupted targeting vectors of a particular MMR gene and introduce it into the genome of bacteria using methods standard in the art. Bacteria exhibiting hypermutability will be useful to produce genetically diverse offspring for commercial applications. Bacteria will be confirmed to have lost the expression of the MMR gene using standard northern and biochemical techniques (as described in reference 32). MMR gene loci can be knocked out, strains selected for new output traits and MMR restored by introducing a wildtype MMR gene to complement the KO locus. Other strategies include using KO vectors that can target a MMR gene locus, select for host output traits and then have the KO vector “spliced” from the genome after strain generation. This process could be performed using systems such as but not limited to CRE-Lox. Blocking peptides. MMR subunits (MutS and MutL proteins) interact to form active MMR complexes. Peptides are able to specifically inhibit the binding of two proteins by competitive inhibition. The use of peptides or antibodies to conserved domains of a particular MMR gene can be introduced into prokaryotic cells using lipid transfer methods that are standard in the art. Bacteria will be confirmed to have lost the expression of the MMR gene using standard northern and biochemical techniques (as described in reference 32). Bacteria exhibiting hypermutability will be useful to produce genetically diverse sibs for commercial applications.

Discussion

The results described above will lead to several conclusions. The expression of dominant negative MMR proteins results in an increase in hypermutability in bacteria. This activity is due to the inhibition of MMR biochemical activity in these hosts. This method provides a claim for use of dominant negative MMR genes and their encoded products for the creation of hypermutable bacteria to produce new output traits for commercial applications.

Examples of MMR Genes and Encoded Polypeptides

Yeast MLH1 cDNA (accession number U07187)    1 aaataggaat gtgatacctt ctattgcatg caaagatagt gtaggaggcg ctgctattgc   61 caaagacttt tgagaccgct tgctgtttca ttatagttga ggagttctcg aagacgagaa  121 attagcagtt ttcggtgttt agtaatcgcg ctagcatgct aggacaattt aactgcaaaa  181 ttttgatacg atagtgatag taaatggaag gtaaaaataa catagaccta tcaataagca  241 atgtctctca gaataaaagc acttgatgca tcagtggtta acaaaattgc tgcaggtgag  301 atcataatat cccccgtaaa tgctctcaaa gaaatgatgg agaattccat cgatgcgaat  361 gctacaatga ttgatattct agtcaaggaa ggaggaatta aggtacttca aataacagat  421 aacggatctg gaattaataa agcagacctg ccaatcttat gtgagcgatt cacgacgtcc  481 aaattacaaa aattcgaaga tttgagtcag attcaaacgt atggattccg aggagaagct  541 ttagccagta tctcacatgt ggcaagagtc acagtaacga caaaagttaa agaagacaga  601 tgtgcatgga gagtttcata tgcagaaggt aagatgttgg aaagccccaa acctgttgct  661 ggaaaagacg gtaccacgat cctagttgaa gacctttttt tcaatattcc ttctagatta  721 agggccttga ggtcccataa tgatgaatac tctaaaatat tagatgttgt cgggcgatac  781 gccattcatt ccaaggacat tggcttttct tgtaaaaagt tcggagactc taattattct  841 ttatcagtta aaccttcata tacagtccag gataggatta ggactgtgtt caataaatct  901 gtggcttcga atttaattac ttttcatatc agcaaagtag aagatttaaa cctggaaagc  961 gttgatggaa aggtgtgtaa tttgaatttc atatccaaaa agtccatttc attaattttt 1021 ttcattaata atagactagt gacatgtgat cttctaagaa gagctttgaa cagcgtttac 1081 tccaattatc tgccaaaggg cttcagacct tttatttatt tgggaattgt tatagatccg 1141 gcggctgttg atgttaacgt tcacccgaca aagagagagg ttcgtttcct gagccaagat 1201 gagatcatag agaaaatcgc caatcaattg cacgccgaat tatctgccat tgatacttca 1261 cgtactttca aggcttcttc aatttcaaca aacaagccag agtcattgat accatttaat 1321 gacaccatag aaagtgatag gaataggaag agtctccgac aagcccaagt ggtagagaat 1381 tcatatacga cagccaatag tcaactaagg aaagcgaaaa gacaagagaa taaactagtc 1441 agaatagatg cttcacaagc taaaattacg tcatttttat cctcaagtca acagttcaac 1501 tttgaaggat cgtctacaaa gcgacaactg agtgaaccca aggtaacaaa tgtaagccac 1561 tcccaagagg cagaaaagct gacactaaat gaaagcgaac aaccgcgtga tgccaataca 1621 atcaatgata atgacttgaa ggatcaacct aagaagaaac aaaagttggg ggattataaa 1681 gttccaagca ttgccgatga cgaaaagaat gcactcccga tttcaaaaga cgggtatatt 1741 agagtaccta aggagcgagt taatgttaat cttacgagta tcaagaaatt gcgtgaaaaa 1801 gtagatgatt cgatacatcg agaactaaca gacatttttg caaatttgaa ttacgttggg 1861 gttgtagatg aggaaagaag attagccgct attcagcatg acttaaagct ttttttaata 1921 gattacggat ctgtgtgcta tgagctattc tatcagattg gtttgacaga cttcgcaaac 1981 tttggtaaga taaacctaca gagtacaaat gtgtcagatg atatagtttt gtataatctc 2041 ctatcagaat ttgacgagtt aaatgacgat gcttccaaag aaaaaataat tagtaaaata 2101 tgggacatga gcagtatgct aaatgagtac tattccatag aattggtgaa tgatggtcta 2161 gataatgact taaagtctgt gaagctaaaa tctctaccac tacttttaaa aggctacatt 2221 ccatctctgg tcaagttacc attttttata tatcgcctgg gtaaagaagt tgattgggag 2281 gatgaacaag agtgtctaga tggtatttta agagagattg cattactcta tatacctgat 2341 atggttccga aagtcgatac actcgatgca tcgttgtcag aagacgaaaa agcccagttt 2401 ataaatagaa aggaacacat atcctcatta ctagaacacg ttctcttccc ttgtatcaaa 2461 cgaaggttcc tggcccctag acacattctc aaggatgtcg tggaaatagc caaccttcca 2521 gatctataca aagtttttga gaggtgttaa ctttaaaacg ttttggctgt aataccaaag 2581 tttttgttta tttcctgagt gtgattgtgt ttcatttgaa agtgtatgcc ctttccttta 2641 acgattcatc cgcgagattt caaaggatat gaaatatggt tgcagttagg aaagtatgtc 2701 agaaatgtat attcggattg aaactcttct aatagttctg aagtcacttg gttccgtatt 2761 gttttcgtcc tcttcctcaa gcaacgattc ttgtctaagc ttattcaacg gtaccaaaga 2821 cccgagtcct tttatgagag aaaacatttc atcatttttc aactcaatta tcttaatatc 2881 attttgtagt attttgaaaa caggatggta aaacgaatca cctgaatcta gaagctgtac 2941 cttgtcccat aaaagtttta atttactgag cctttcggtc aagtaaacta gtttatctag 3001 ttttgaaccg aatattgtgg gcagatttgc agtaagttca gttagatcta ctaaaagttg 3061 tttgacagca gccgattcca caaaaatttg gtaaaaggag atgaaagaga cctcgcgcgt 3121 aatggtttgc atcaccatcg gatgtctgtt gaaaaactca ctttttgcat ggaagttatt 3181 aacaataaga ctaatgatta ccttagaata atgtataa Yeast MLH1 protein (accession number U07187) MSLRIKALDASVVNKIAAGEIIISPVNALKEMMENSIDANATMIDILVKEGGIKVLQITDNGSGINKAD LPILCERFTTSKLQKFEDLSQIQTYGFRGEALASISHVARVTVTTKVKEDRCAWRVSYAEGKMLESPKP VAGKDGTTILVEDLFFNIPSRLRALRSHNDEYSKILDVVGRYAIHSKDIGFSCKKFGDSNYSLSVKPSY TVQDRIRTVFNKSVASNLITFHISKVEDLNLESVDGKVCNLNFISKKSISLIFFINNRLVTCDLLRRAL NSVYSNYLPKGFRPFIYLGIVIDPAAVDVNVHPTKREVRFLSQDEIIEKIANQLHAELSAIDTSRTFKA SSISTNKPESLIPFNDTIESDRNRKSLRQAQVVENSYTTANSQLRKAKRQENKLVRIDASQAKITSFLS SSQQFNFEGSSTKRQLSEPKVTNVSHSQEAEKLTLNESEQPRDANTINDNDLKDQPKKKQKLGDYKVPS IADDEKNALPISKDGYIRVPKERVNVNLTSIKKLREKVDDSIHRELTDIFANLNYVGVVDEERRLAAIQ HDLKLFLIDYGSVCYELFYQIGLTDFANFGKINLQSTNVSDDIVLYNLLSEFDELNDDASKEKIISKIW DMSSMLNEYYSIELVNDGLDNDLKSVKLKSLPLLLKGYIPSLVKLPFFIYRLGKEVDWEDEQECLDGIL REIALLYIPDMVPKVDTLDASLSEDEKAQFINRKEHISSLLEHVLFPCIKRRFLAPRHILKDVVEIANL PDLYKVFERC Mouse PMS2 protein MEQTEGVSTE CAKAIKPIDG KSVHQICSGQ VILSLSTAVK ELIENSVDAG ATTIDLRLKD 60 YGVDLIEVSD NGCGVEEENF EGLALKHHTS KIQEFADLTQ VETFGFRGEA LSSLCALSDV 120 TISTCHGSAS VGTRLVFDHN GKITQKTPYP RPKGTTVSVQ HLFYTLPVRY KEFQRNIKKE 180 YSKMVQVLQA YCIISAGVRV SCTNQLGQGK RHAVVCTSGT SGMKENIGSV FGQKQLQSLI 240 PFVQLPPSDA VCEEYGLSTS GRHKTFSTFR ASFHSARTAP GGVQQTGSFS SSIRGPVTQQ 300 RSLSLSMRFY HMYNRHQYPF VVLNVSVDSE CVDINVTPDK RQILLQEEKL LLAVLKTSLI 360 GMFDSDANKL NVNQQPLLDV EGNLVKLHTA ELEKPVPGKQ DNSPSLKSTA DEKRVASISR 420 LREAFSLHPT KEIKSRGPET AELTRSFPSE KRGVLSSYPS DVISYRGLRG SQDKLVSPTD 480 SPGDCMDREK IEKDSGLSST SAGSEEEFST PEVASSFSSD YNVSSLEDRP SQETINCGDL 540 DCRPPGTGQS LKPEDHGYQC KALPLARLSP TNAKRFKTEE RPSNVNISQR LPGPQSTSAA 600 EVDVAIKMNK RIVLLEFSLS SLAKRMKQLQ HLKAQNKHEL SYRKFRAKIC PGENQAAEDE 660 LRKEISKSMF AEMEILGQFN LGFIVTKLKE DLFLVDQHAA DEKYNFEMLQ QHTVLQAQRL 720 ITPQTLNLTA VNEAVLIENL EIFRKNGFDF VIDEDAPVTE RAKLISLPTS KNWTFGPQDI 780 DELIFMLSDS PGVMCRPSRV RQMFASRACR KSVMIGTALN ASEMKKLITH MGEMDHPWNC 840 PHGRPTMRHV ANLDVISQN 859 Mouse PMS2 cDNA gaattccggt gaaggtcctg aagaatttcc agattcctga gtatcattgg aggagacaga 60 taacctgtcg tcaggtaacg atggtgtata tgcaacagaa atgggtgttc ctggagacgc 120 gtcttttccc gagagcggca ccgcaactct cccgcggtga ctgtgactgg aggagtcctg 180 catccatgga gcaaaccgaa ggcgtgagta cagaatgtgc taaggccatc aagcctattg 240 atgggaagtc agtccatcaa atttgttctg ggcaggtgat actcagttta agcaccgctg 300 tgaaggagtt gatagaaaat agtgtagatg ctggtgctac tactattgat ctaaggctta 360 aagactatgg ggtggacctc attgaagttt cagacaatgg atgtggggta gaagaagaaa 420 actttgaagg tctagctctg aaacatcaca catctaagat tcaagagttt gccgacctca 480 cgcaggttga aactttcggc tttcgggggg aagctctgag ctctctgtgt gcactaagtg 540 atgtcactat atctacctgc cacgggtctg caagcgttgg gactcgactg gtgtttgacc 600 ataatgggaa aatcacccag aaaactccct acccccgacc taaaggaacc acagtcagtg 660 tgcagcactt attttataca ctacccgtgc gttacaaaga gtttcagagg aacattaaaa 720 aggagtattc caaaatggtg caggtcttac aggcgtactg tatcatctca gcaggcgtcc 780 gtgtaagctg cactaatcag ctcggacagg ggaagcggca cgctgtggtg tgcacaagcg 840 gcacgtctgg catgaaggaa aatatcgggt ctgtgtttgg ccagaagcag ttgcaaagcc 900 tcattccttt tgttcagctg ccccctagtg acgctgtgtg tgaagagtac ggcctgagca 960 cttcaggacg ccacaaaacc ttttctacgt ttcgggcttc atttcacagt gcacgcacgg 1020 cgccgggagg agtgcaacag acaggcagtt tttcttcatc aatcagaggc cctgtgaccc 1080 agcaaaggtc tctaagcttg tcaatgaggt tttatcacat gtataaccgg catcagtacc 1140 catttgtcgt ccttaacgtt tccgttgact cagaatgtgt ggatattaat gtaactccag 1200 ataaaaggca aattctacta caagaagaga agctattgct ggccgtttta aagacctcct 1260 tgataggaat gtttgacagt gatgcaaaca agcttaatgt caaccagcag ccactgctag 1320 atgttgaagg taacttagta aagctgcata ctgcagaact agaaaagcct gtgccaggaa 1380 agcaagataa ctctccttca ctgaagagca cagcagacga gaaaagggta gcatccatct 1440 ccaggctgag agaggccttt tctcttcatc ctactaaaga gatcaagtct aggggtccag 1500 agactgctga actgacacgg agttttccaa gtgagaaaag gggcgtgtta tcctcttatc 1560 cttcagacgt catctcttac agaggcctcc gtggctcgca ggacaaattg gtgagtccca 1620 cggacagccc tggtgactgt atggacagag agaaaataga aaaagactca gggctcagca 1680 gcacctcagc tggctctgag gaagagttca gcaccccaga agtggccagt agctttagca 1740 gtgactataa cgtgagctcc ctagaagaca gaccttctca ggaaaccata aactgtggtg 1800 acctggactg ccgtcctcca ggtacaggac agtccttgaa gccagaagac catggatatc 1860 aatgcaaagc tctacctcta gctcgtctgt cacccacaaa tgccaagcgc ttcaagacag 1920 aggaaagacc ctcaaatgtc aacatttctc aaagattgcc tggtcctcag agcacctcag 1980 cagctgaggt cgatgtagcc ataaaaatga ataagagaat cgtgctcctc gagttctctc 2040 tgagttctct agctaagcga atgaagcagt tacagcacct aaaggcgcag aacaaacatg 2100 aactgagtta cagaaaattt agggccaaga tttgccctgg agaaaaccaa gcagcagaag 2160 atgaactcag aaaagagatt agtaaatcga tgtttgcaga gatggagatc ttgggtcagt 2220 ttaacctggg atttatagta accaaactga aagaggacct cttcctggtg gaccagcatg 2280 ctgcggatga gaagtacaac tttgagatgc tgcagcagca cacggtgctc caggcgcaga 2340 ggctcatcac accccagact ctgaacttaa ctgctgtcaa tgaagctgta ctgatagaaa 2400 atctggaaat attcagaaag aatggctttg actttgtcat tgatgaggat gctccagtca 2460 ctgaaagggc taaattgatt tccttaccaa ctagtaaaaa ctggaccttt ggaccccaag 2520 atatagatga actgatcttt atgttaagtg acagccctgg ggtcatgtgc cggccctcac 2580 gagtcagaca gatgtttgct tccagagcct gtcggaagtc agtgatgatt ggaacggcgc 2640 tcaatgcgag cgagatgaag aagctcatca cccacatggg tgagatggac cacccctgga 2700 actgccccca cggcaggcca accatgaggc acgttgccaa tctggatgtc atctctcaga 2760 actgacacac cccttgtagc atagagttta ttacagattg ttcggtttgc aaagagaagg 2820 ttttaagtaa tctgattatc gttgtacaaa aattagcatg ctgctttaat gtactggatc 2880 catttaaaag cagtgttaag gcaggcatga tggagtgttc ctctagctca gctacttggg 2940 tgatccggtg ggagctcatg tgagcccagg actttgagac cactccgagc cacattcatg 3000 agactcaatt caaggacaaa aaaaaaaaga tattttgaa gccttttaaa aaaaaa 3056 human PMS2 protein MKQLPAATVR LLSSSQIITS VVSVVKELIE NSLDAGATSV DVKLENYGFD KIEVRDNGEG 60 IKAVDAPVMA MKYYTSKINS HEDLENLTTY GFRGEALGSI CCIAEVLITT RTAADNFSTQ 120 YVLDGSGHIL SQKPSHLGQG TTVTALRLFK NLPVRKQFYS TAKKCKDEIK KIQDLLMSFG 180 ILKPDLRIVF VHNKAVIWQK SRVSDHKMAL MSVLGTAVMN NMESFQYHSE ESQIYLSGFL 240 PKCDADHSFT SLSTPERSFI FINSRPVHQK DILKLIRHHY NLKCLKESTR LYPVFFLKID 300 VPTADVDVNL TPDKSQVLLQ NKESVLIALE NLMTTCYGPL PSTNSYENNK TDVSAADIVL 360 SKTAETDVLF NKVESSGKNY SNVDTSVIPF QNDMHNDESG KNTDDCLNHQ ISIGDFGYGH 420 CSSEISNIDK NTKNAFQDIS MSNVSWENSQ TEYSKTCFIS SVKHTQSENG NKDHIDESGE 480 NEEEAGLENS SEISADEWSR GNILKNSVGE NIEPVKILVP EKSLPCKVSN NNYPIPEQMN 540 LNEDSCNKKS NVIDNKSGKV TAYDLLSNRV IKKPMSASAL FVQDHRPQFL IENPKTSLED 600 ATLQIEELWK TLSEEEKLKY EEKATKDLER YNSQMKRAIE QESQMSLKDG RKKIKPTSAW 660 NLAQKHKLKT SLSNQPKLDE LLQSQIEKRR SQNIKMVQIP FSMKNLKINF KKQNKVDLEE 720 KDEPCLIHNL RFPDAWLMTS KTEVMLLNPY RVEEALLFKR LLENHKLPAE PLEKPIMLTE 780 SLFNGSHYLD VLYKMTADDQ RYSGSTYLSD PRLTANGFKI KLIPGVSITE NYLEIEGMAN 840 CLPFYGVADL KEILNAILNR NAKEVYECRP RKVISYLEGE AVRLSRQLPM YLSKEDIQDI 900 IYRMKHQFGN EIKECVHGRP FFHHLTYLPE TT 932 Human PMS2 cDNA cgaggcggat cgggtgttgc atccatggag cgagctgaga gctcgagtac agaacctgct 60 aaggccatca aacctattga tcggaagtca gtccatcaga tttgctctgg gcaggtggta 120 ctgagtctaa gcactgcggt aaaggagtta gtagaaaaca gtctggatgc tggtgccact 180 aatattgatc taaagcttaa ggactatgga gtggatctta ttgaagtttc agacaatgga 240 tgtggggtag aagaagaaaa cttcgaaggc ttaactctga aacatcacac atctaagatt 300 caagagtttg ccgacctaac tcaggttgaa acttttggct ttcgggggga agctctgagc 360 tcactttgtg cactgagcga tgtcaccatt tctacctgcc acgcatcggc gaaggttgga 420 actcgactga tgtttgatca caatgggaaa attatccaga aaacccccta cccccgcccc 480 agagggacca cagtcagcgt gcagcagtta ttttccacac tacctgtgcg ccataaggaa 540 tttcaaagga atattaagaa ggagtatgcc aaaatggtcc aggtcttaca tgcatactgt 600 atcatttcag caggcatccg tgtaagttgc accaatcagc ttggacaagg aaaacgacag 660 cctgtggtat gcacaggtgg aagccccagc ataaaggaaa atatcggctc tgtgtttggg 720 cagaagcagt tgcaaagcct cattcctttt gttcagctgc cccctagtga ctccgtgtgt 780 gaagagtacg gtttgagctg ttcggatgct ctgcataatc ttttttacat ctcaggtttc 840 atttcacaat gcacgcatgg agttggaagg agttcaacag acagacagtt tttctttatc 900 aaccggcggc cttgtgaccc agcaaaggtc tgcagactcg tgaatgaggt ctaccacatg 960 tataatcgac accagtatcc atttgttgtt cttaacattt ctgttgattc agaatgcgtt 1020 gatatcaatg ttactccaga taaaaggcaa attttgctac aagaggaaaa gcttttgttg 1080 gcagttttaa agacctcttt gataggaatg tttgatagtg atgtcaacaa gctaaatgtc 1140 agtcagcagc cactgctgga tgttgaaggt aacttaataa aaatgcatgc agcggatttg 1200 gaaaagccca tggtagaaaa gcaggatcaa tccccttcat taaggactgg agaagaaaaa 1260 aaagacgtgt ccatttccag actgcgagag gccttttctc ttcgtcacac aacagagaac 1320 aagcctcaca gcccaaagac tccagaacca agaaggagcc ctctaggaca gaaaaggggt 1380 atgctgtctt ctagcacttc aggtgccatc tctgacaaag gcgtcctgag acctcagaaa 1440 gaggcagtga gttccagtca cggacccagt gaccctacgg acagagcgga ggtggagaag 1500 gactcggggc acggcagcac ttccgtggat tctgaggggt tcagcatccc agacacgggc 1560 agtcactgca gcagcgagta tgcggccagc tccccagggg acaggggctc gcaggaacat 1620 gtggactctc aggagaaagc gcctgaaact gacgactctt tttcagatgt ggactgccat 1680 tcaaaccagg aagataccgg atgtaaattt cgagttttgc ctcagccaac taatctcgca 1740 accccaaaca caaagcgttt taaaaaagaa gaaattcttt ccagttctga catttgtcaa 1800 aagttagtaa atactcagga catgtcagcc tctcaggttg atgtagctgt gaaaattaat 1860 aagaaagttg tgcccctgga cttttctatg agttctttag ctaaacgaat aaagcagtta 1920 catcatgaag cacagcaaag tgaaggggaa cagaattaca ggaagtttag ggcaaagatt 1980 tgtcctggag aaaatcaagc agccgaagat gaactaagaa aagagataag taaaacgatg 2040 tttgcagaaa tggaaatcat tggtcagttt aacctgggat ttataataac caaactgaat 2100 gaggatatct tcatagtgga ccagcatgcc acggacgaga agtataactt cgagatgctg 2160 cagcagcaca ccgtgctcca ggggcagagg ctcatagcac ctcagactct caacttaact 2220 gctgttaatg aagctgttct gatagaaaat ctggaaatat ttagaaagaa tggctttgat 2280 tttgttatcg atgaaaatgc tccagtcact gaaagggcta aactgatttc cttgccaact 2340 agtaaaaact ggaccttcgg accccaggac gtcgatgaac tgatcttcat gctgagcgac 2400 agccctgggg tcatgtgccg gccttcccga gtcaagcaga tgtttgcctc cagagcctgc 2460 cggaagtcgg tgatgattgg gactgctctt aacacaagcg agatgaagaa actgatcacc 2520 cacatggggg agatggacca cccctggaac tgtccccatg gaaggccaac catgagacac 2580 atcgccaacc tgggtgtcat ttctcagaac tgaccgtagt cactgtatgg aataattggt 2640 tttatcgcag atttttatgt tttgaaagac agagtcttca ctaacctttt ttgttttaaa 2700 atgaaacctg ctacttaaaa aaaatacaca tcacacccat ttaaaagtga tcttgagaac 2760 cttttcaaac c 2771 human PMS1 protein MKQLPAATVR LLSSSQIITS VVSVVKELIE NSLDAGATSV DVKLENYGFD KIEVRDNGEG 60 IKAVDAPVMA MKYYTSKINS HEDLENLTTY GFRGEALGSI CCIAEVLITT RTAADNFSTQ 120 YVLDGSGHIL SQKPSHLGQG TTVTALRLFK NLPVRKQFYS TAKKCKDEIK KIQDLLMSFG 180 ILKPDLRIVF VHNKAVIWQK SRVSDHKMAL MSVLGTAVMN NMESFQYHSE ESQIYLSGFL 240 PKCDADHSFT SLSTPERSFI FINSRPVHQK DILKLIRHHY NLKCLKESTR LYPVFFLKID 300 VPTADVDVNL TPDKSQVLLQ NKESVLIALE NLMTTCYGPL PSTNSYENNK TDVSAADIVL 360 SKTAETDVLF NKVESSGKNY SNVDTSVIPF QNDMHNDESG KNTDDCLNHQ ISIGDFGYGH 420 CSSEISNIDK NTKNAFQDIS MSNVSWENSQ TEYSKTCFIS SVKHTQSENG NKDHIDESGE 480 NEEEAGLENS SEISADEWSR GNILKNSVGE NIEPVKILVP EKSLPCKVSN NNYPIPEQMN 540 LNEDSCNKKS NVIDNKSGKV TAYDLLSNRV IKKPMSASAL FVQDHRPQFL IENPKTSLED 600 ATLQIEELWK TLSEEEKLKY EEKATKDLER YNSQMKRAIE QESQMSLKDG RKKIKPTSAW 660 NLAQKHKLKT SLSNQPKLDE LLQSQIEKRR SQNIKMVQIP FSMKNLKINF KKQNKVDLEE 720 KDEPCLIHNL RFPDAWLMTS KTEVMLLNPY RVEEALLFKR LLENHKLPAE PLEKPIMLTE 780 SLFNGSHYLD VLYKMTADDQ RYSGSTYLSD PRLTANGFKI KLIPGVSITE NYLEIEGMAN 840 CLPFYGVADL KEILNAILNR NAKEVYECRP RKVISYLEGE AVRLSRQLPM YLSKEDIQDI 900 IYRMKHQFGN EIKECVHGRP FFHHLTYLPE TT 932 Human PMS1 cDNA ggcacgagtg gctgcttgcg gctagtggat ggtaattgcc tgcctcgcgc tagcagcaag 60 ctgctctgtt aaaagcgaaa atgaaacaat tgcctgcggc aacagttcga ctcctttcaa 120 gttctcagat catcacttcg gtggtcagtg ttgtaaaaga gcttattgaa aactccttgg 180 atgctggtgc cacaagcgta gatgttaaac tggagaacta tggatttgat aaaattgagg 240 tgcgagataa cggggagggt atcaaggctg ttgatgcacc tgtaatggca atgaagtact 300 acacctcaaa aataaatagt catgaagatc ttgaaaattt gacaacttac ggttttcgtg 360 gagaagcctt ggggtcaatt tgttgtatag ctgaggtttt aattacaaca agaacggctg 420 ctgataattt tagcacccag tatgttttag atggcagtgg ccacatactt tctcagaaac 480 cttcacatct tggtcaaggt acaactgtaa ctgctttaag attatttaag aatctacctg 540 taagaaagca gttttactca actgcaaaaa aatgtaaaga tgaaataaaa aagatccaag 600 atctcctcat gagctttggt atccttaaac ctgacttaag gattgtcttt gtacataaca 660 aggcagttat ttggcagaaa agcagagtat cagatcacaa gatggctctc atgtcagttc 720 tggggactgc tgttatgaac aatatggaat cctttcagta ccactctgaa gaatctcaga 780 tttatctcag tggatttctt ccaaagtgtg atgcagacca ctctttcact agtctttcaa 840 caccagaaag aagtttcatc ttcataaaca gtcgaccagt acatcaaaaa gatatcttaa 900 agttaatccg acatcattac aatctgaaat gcctaaagga atctactcgt ttgtatcctg 960 ttttctttct gaaaatcgat gttcctacag ctgatgttga tgtaaattta acaccagata 1020 aaagccaagt attattacaa aataaggaat ctgttttaat tgctcttgaa aatctgatga 1080 cgacttgtta tggaccatta cctagtacaa attcttatga aaataataaa acagatgttt 1140 ccgcagctga catcgttctt agtaaaacag cagaaacaga tgtgcttttt aataaagtgg 1200 aatcatctgg aaagaattat tcaaatgttg atacttcagt cattccattc caaaatgata 1260 tgcataatga tgaatctgga aaaaacactg atgattgttt aaatcaccag ataagtattg 1320 gtgactttgg ttatggtcat tgtagtagtg aaatttctaa cattgataaa aacactaaga 1380 atgcatttca ggacatttca atgagtaatg tatcatggga gaactctcag acggaatata 1440 gtaaaacttg ttttataagt tccgttaagc acacccagtc agaaaatggc aataaagacc 1500 atatagatga gagtggggaa aatgaggaag aagcaggtct tgaaaactct tcggaaattt 1560 ctgcagatga gtggagcagg ggaaatatac ttaaaaattc agtgggagag aatattgaac 1620 ctgtgaaaat tttagtgcct gaaaaaagtt taccatgtaa agtaagtaat aataattatc 1680 caatccctga acaaatgaat cttaatgaag attcatgtaa caaaaaatca aatgtaatag 1740 ataataaatc tggaaaagtt acagcttatg atttacttag caatcgagta atcaagaaac 1800 ccatgtcagc aagtgctctt tttgttcaag atcatcgtcc tcagtttctc atagaaaatc 1860 ctaagactag tttagaggat gcaacactac aaattgaaga actgtggaag acattgagtg 1920 aagaggaaaa actgaaatat gaagagaagg ctactaaaga cttggaacga tacaatagtc 1980 aaatgaagag agccattgaa caggagtcac aaatgtcact aaaagatggc agaaaaaaga 2040 taaaacccac cagcgcatgg aatttggccc agaagcacaa gttaaaaacc tcattatcta 2100 atcaaccaaa acttgatgaa ctccttcagt cccaaattga aaaaagaagg agtcaaaata 2160 ttaaaatggt acagatcccc ttttctatga aaaacttaaa aataaatttt aagaaacaaa 2220 acaaagttga cttagaagag aaggatgaac cttgcttgat ccacaatctc aggtttcctg 2280 atgcatggct aatgacatcc aaaacagagg taatgttatt aaatccatat agagtagaag 2340 aagccctgct atttaaaaga cttcttgaga atcataaact tcctgcagag ccactggaaa 2400 agccaattat gttaacagag agtcttttta atggatctca ttatttagac gttttatata 2460 aaatgacagc agatgaccaa agatacagtg gatcaactta cctgtctgat cctcgtctta 2520 cagcgaatgg tttcaagata aaattgatac caggagtttc aattactgaa aattacttgg 2580 aaatagaagg aatggctaat tgtctcccat tctatggagt agcagattta aaagaaattc 2640 ttaatgctat attaaacaga aatgcaaagg aagtttatga atgtagacct cgcaaagtga 2700 taagttattt agagggagaa gcagtgcgtc tatccagaca attacccatg tacttatcaa 2760 aagaggacat ccaagacatt atctacagaa tgaagcacca gtttggaaat gaaattaaag 2820 agtgtgttca tggtcgccca ttttttcatc atttaaccta tcttccagaa actacatgat 2880 taaatatgtt taagaagatt agttaccatt gaaattggtt ctgtcataaa acagcatgag 2940 tctggtttta aattatcttt gtattatgtg tcacatggtt attttttaaa tgaggattca 3000 ctgacttgtt tttatattga aaaaagttcc acgtattgta gaaaacgtaa ataaactaat 3060 aac 3063 human MSH2 protein MAVQPKETLQ LESAAEVGFV RFFQGMPEKP TITVRLFDRG DFYTAHGEDS LLAAREVFKT 60 QGVIKYMGPA GAKNLQSVVL SKMNFESFVK DLLLVRQYRV EVYKNRAGNK ASKENDWYLA 120 YKASPGNLSQ FEDILFGNND MSASIGVVGV KMSAVDGQRQ VGVGYVDSIQ RKLGLCEFPD 180 NDQFSNLEAL LIQIGPKECV LPGGETAGDM GKLRQIIQRG GILITERKKA DFSTKDIYQD 240 LNRLLKGKKG EQMNSAVLPE MENQVAVSSL SAVIKFLELL SDDSNFGQFE LTTFDFSQYM 300 KLDIAAVRAL NLFQGSVEDT TGSQSLAALL NKCKTPQGQR LVNQWIKQPL MDKNRIEERL 360 NLVEAFVEDA ELRQTLQEDL LRRFPDLNRL AKKFQRQAAN LQDCYRLYQG INQLPNVIQA 420 LEKHEGKHQK LLLAVFVTPL TDLRSDFSKF QEMIETTLDM DQVENHEFLV KPSFDPNLSE 480 LREIMNDLEK KMQSTLISAA RDLGLDPGKQ IKLDSSAQFG YYFRVTCKEE KVLRNNKNFS 540 TVDIQKNGVK FTNSKLTSLN EEYTKNKTEY EEAQDAIVKE IVNISSGYVE PMQTLNDVLA 600 QLDAVVSFAH VSNGAPVPYV RPAILEKGQG RIILKASRHA CVEVQDEIAF IPNDVYFEKD 660 KQMFHIITGP NMGGKSTYIR QTGVIVLMAQ IGCFVPCESA EVSIVDCILA RVGAGDSQLK 720 GVSTFMAEML ETASILRSAT KDSLIIIDEL GRGTSTYDGF GLAWAISEYI ATKIGAFCMF 780 ATHFHELTAL ANQIPTVNNL HVTALTTEET LTMLYQVKKG VCDQSFGIHV AELANFPKHV 840 IECAKQKALE LEEFQYIGES QGYDIMEPAA KKCYLEREQG EKIIQEFLSK VKQMPFTEMS 900 EENITIKLKQ LKAEVIAKNN SFVNEIISRI KVTT 934 Human MSH2 cDNA ggcgggaaac agcttagtgg gtgtggggtc gcgcattttc ttcaaccagg aggtgaggag 60 gtttcgacat ggcggtgcag ccgaaggaga cgctgcagtt ggagagcgcg gccgaggtcg 120 gcttcgtgcg cttctttcag ggcatgccgg agaagccgac caccacagtg cgccttttcg 180 accggggcga cttctatacg gcgcacggcg aggacgcgct gctggccgcc cgggaggtgt 240 tcaagaccca gggggtgatc aagtacatgg ggccggcagg agcaaagaat ctgcagagtg 300 ttgtgcttag taaaatgaat tttgaatctt ttgtaaaaga tcttcttctg gttcgtcagt 360 atagagttga agtttataag aatagagctg gaaataaggc atccaaggag aatgattggt 420 atttggcata taaggcttct cctggcaatc tctctcagtt tgaagacatt ctctttggta 480 acaatgatat gtcagcttcc attggtgttg tgggtgttaa aatgtccgca gttgatggcc 540 agagacaggt tggagttggg tatgtggatt ccatacagag gaaactagga ctgtgtgaat 600 tccctgataa tgatcagttc tccaatcttg aggctctcct catccagatt ggaccaaagg 660 aatgtgtttt acccggagga gagactgctg gagacatggg gaaactgaga cagataattc 720 aaagaggagg aattctgatc acagaaagaa aaaaagctga cttttccaca aaagacattt 780 atcaggacct caaccggttg ttgaaaggca aaaagggaga gcagatgaat agtgctgtat 840 tgccagaaat ggagaatcag gttgcagttt catcactgtc tgcggtaatc aagtttttag 900 aactcttatc agatgattcc aactttggac agtttgaact gactactttt gacttcagcc 960 agtatatgaa attggatatt gcagcagtca gagcccttaa cctttttcag ggttctgttg 1020 aagataccac tggctctcag tctctggctg ccttgctgaa taagtgtaaa acccctcaag 1080 gacaaagact tgttaaccag tggattaagc agcctctcat ggataagaac agaatagagg 1140 agagattgaa tttagtggaa gcttttgtag aagatgcaga attgaggcag actttacaag 1200 aagatttact tcgtcgattc ccagatctta accgacttgc caagaagttt caaagacaag 1260 cagcaaactt acaagattgt taccgactct atcagggtat aaatcaacta cctaatgtta 1320 tacaggctct ggaaaaacat gaaggaaaac accagaaatt attgttggca gtttttgtga 1380 ctcctcttac tgatcttcgt tctgacttct ccaagtttca ggaaatgata gaaacaactt 1440 tagatatgga tcaggtggaa aaccatgaat tccttgtaaa accttcattt gatcctaatc 1500 tcagtgaatt aagagaaata atgaatgact tggaaaagaa gatgcagtca acattaataa 1560 gtgcagccag agatcttggc ttggaccctg gcaaacagat taaactggat tccagtgcac 1620 agtttggata ttactttcgt gtaacctgta aggaagaaaa agtccttcgt aacaataaaa 1680 actttagtac tgtagatatc cagaagaatg gtgttaaatt taccaacagc aaattgactt 1740 ctttaaatga agagtatacc aaaaataaaa cagaatatga agaagcccag gatgccattg 1800 ttaaagaaat tgtcaatatt tcttcaggct atgtagaacc aatgcagaca ctcaatgatg 1860 tgttagctca gctagatgct gttgtcagct ttgctcacgt gtcaaatgga gcacctgttc 1920 catatgtacg accagccatt ttggagaaag gacaaggaag aattatatta aaagcatcca 1980 ggcatgcttg tgttgaagtt caagatgaaa ttgcatttat tcctaatgac gtatactttg 2040 aaaaagataa acagatgttc cacatcatta ctggccccaa tatgggaggt aaatcaacat 2100 atattcgaca aactggggtg atagtactca tggcccaaat tgggtgtttt gtgccatgtg 2160 agtcagcaga agtgtccatt gtggactgca tcttagcccg agtaggggct ggtgacagtc 2220 aattgaaagg agtctccacg ttcatggctg aaatgttgga aactgcttct atcctcaggt 2280 ctgcaaccaa agattcatta ataatcatag atgaattggg aagaggaact tctacctacg 2340 atggatttgg gttagcatgg gctatatcag aatacattgc aacaaagatt ggtgcttttt 2400 gcatgtttgc aacccatttt catgaactta ctgccttggc caatcagata ccaactgtta 2460 ataatctaca tgtcacagca ctcaccactg aagagacctt aactatgctt tatcaggtga 2520 agaaaggtgt ctgtgatcaa agttttggga ttcatgttgc agagcttgct aatttcccta 2580 agcatgtaat agagtgtgct aaacagaaag ccctggaact tgaggagttt cagtatattg 2640 gagaatcgca aggatatgat atcatggaac cagcagcaaa gaagtgctat ctggaaagag 2700 agcaaggtga aaaaattatt caggagttcc tgtccaaggt gaaacaaatg ccctttactg 2760 aaatgtcaga agaaaacatc acaataaagt taaaacagct aaaagctgaa gtaatagcaa 2820 agaataatag ctttgtaaat gaaatcattt cacgaataaa agttactacg tgaaaaatcc 2880 cagtaatgga atgaaggtaa tattgataag ctattgtctg taatagtttt atattgtttt 2940 atattaaccc tttttccata gtgttaactg tcagtgccca tgggctatca acttaataag 3000 atatttagta atattttact ttgaggacat tttcaaagat ttttattttg aaaaatgaga 3060 gctgtaactg aggactgttt gcaattgaca taggcaataa taagtgatgt gctgaatttt 3120 ataaataaaa tcatgtagtt tgtgg 3145 human MLH1 protein MSFVAGVIRR LDETVVNRIA AGEVIQRPAN AIKEMIENCL DAKSTSIQVI VKEGGLKLIQ 60 IQDNGTGIRK EDLDIVCERF TTSKLQSFED LASISTYGFR GEALASISHV AHVTITTKTA 120 DGKCAYRASY SDGKLKAPPK PCAGNQGTQI TVEDLFYNIA TRRKALKNPS EEYGKILEVV 180 GRYSVHNAGI SFSVKKQGET VADVRTLPNA STVDNIRSIF GNAVSRELIE IGCEDKTLAF 240 KMNGYISNAN YSVKKCIFLL FINHRLVEST SLRKAIETVY AAYLPKNTHP FLYLSLEISP 300 QNVDVNVHPT KHEVHFLHEE SILERVQQHI ESKLLGSNSS RMYFTQTLLP GLAGPSGEMV 360 KSTTSLTSSS TSGSSDKVYA HQMVRTDSRE QKLDAFLQPL SKPLSSQPQA IVTEDKTDIS 420 SGRARQQDEE MLELPAPAEV AAKNQSLEGD TIKGTSEMSE KRGPTSSNPR KRHREDSDVE 480 MVEDDSRKEM TAACTPRRRI INLTSVLSLQ EEINEQGHEV LREMLHNHSF VGCVNPQWAL 540 AQHQTKLYLL NTTKLSEELF YQILIYDFAN FGVLRLSEPQ PLFDLAMLAL DSPESGWTEE 600 DGPKEGLAEY IVEFLKKKAE MLADYFSLEI DEEGNLIGLP LLIDNYVPPL EGLPIFILRL 660 ATEVNWDEEK ECFESLSKEC AMFYSIRKQY ISEESTLSGQ QSEVPGSIPN SWKWTVEHIV 720 YKALRSHILP PKHFTEDGNI LQLANLPDLY KVFERC 756 Human MLH1 cDNA cttggctctt ctggcgccaa aatgtcgttc gtggcagggg ttattcggcg gctggacgag 60 acagtggtga accgcatcgc ggcgggggaa gttatccagc ggccagctaa tgctatcaaa 120 gagatgattg agaactgttt agatgcaaaa tccacaagta ttcaagtgat tgttaaagag 180 ggaggcctga agttgattca gatccaagac aatggcaccg ggatcaggaa agaagatctg 240 gatattgtat gtgaaaggtt cactactagt aaactgcagt cctttgagga tttagccagt 300 atttctacct atggctttcg aggtgaggct ttggccagca taagccatgt ggctcatgtt 360 actattacaa cgaaaacagc tgatggaaag tgtgcataca gagcaagtta ctcagatgga 420 aaactgaaag cccctcctaa accatgtgct ggcaatcaag ggacccagat cacggtggag 480 gacctttttt acaacatagc cacgaggaga aaagctttaa aaaatccaag tgaagaatat 540 gggaaaattt tggaagttgt tggcaggtat tcagtacaca atgcaggcat tagtttctca 600 gttaaaaaac aaggagagac agtagctgat gttaggacac tacccaatgc ctcaaccgtg 660 gacaatattc gctccatctt tggaaatgct gttagtcgag aactgataga aattggatgt 720 gaggataaaa ccctagcctt caaaatgaat ggttacatat ccaatgcaaa ctactcagtg 780 aagaagtgca tcttcttact cttcatcaac catcgtctgg tagaatcaac ttccttgaga 840 aaagccatag aaacagtgta tgcagcctat ttgcccaaaa acacacaccc attcctgtac 900 ctcagtttag aaatcagtcc ccagaatgtg gatgttaatg tgcaccccac aaagcatgaa 960 gttcacttcc tgcacgagga gagcatcctg gagcgggtgc agcagcacat cgagagcaag 1020 ctcctgggct ccaattcctc caggatgtac ttcacccaga ctttgctacc aggacttgct 1080 ggcccctctg gggagatggt taaatccaca acaagtctga cctcgtcttc tacttctgga 1140 agtagtgata aggtctatgc ccaccagatg gttcgtacag attcccggga acagaagctt 1200 gatgcatttc tgcagcctct gagcaaaccc ctgtccagtc agccccaggc cattgtcaca 1260 gaggataaga cagatatttc tagtggcagg gctaggcagc aagatgagga gatgcttgaa 1320 ctcccagccc ctgctgaagt ggctgccaaa aatcagagct tggaggggga tacaacaaag 1380 gggacttcag aaatgtcaga gaagagagga cctacttcca gcaaccccag aaagagacat 1440 cgggaagatt ctgatgtgga aatggtggaa gatgattccc gaaaggaaat gactgcagct 1500 tgtacccccc ggagaaggat cattaacctc actagtgttt tgagtctcca ggaagaaatt 1560 aatgagcagg gacatgaggt tctccgggag atgttgcata accactcctt cgtgggctgt 1620 gtgaatcctc agtgggcctt ggcacagcat caaaccaagt tataccttct caacaccacc 1680 aagcttagtg aagaactgtt ctaccagata ctcatttatg attttgccaa ttttggtgtt 1740 ctcaggttat cggagccagc accgctcttt gaccttgcca tgcttgcctt agatagtcca 1800 gagagtggct ggacagagga agatggtccc aaagaaggac ttgctgaata cattgttgag 1860 tttctgaaga agaaggctga gatgcttgca gactatttct ctttggaaat tgatgaggaa 1920 gggaacctga ttggattacc ccttctgatt gacaactatg tgcccccttt ggagggactg 1980 cctatcttca ttcttcgact agccactgag gtgaattggg acgaagaaaa ggaatgtttt 2040 gaaagcctca gtaaagaatg cgctatgttc tattccatcc ggaagcagta catatctgag 2100 gagtcgaccc tctcaggcca gcagagtgaa gtgcctggct ccattccaaa ctcctggaag 2160 tggactgtgg aacacattgt ctataaagcc ttgcgctcac acattctgcc tcctaaacat 2220 ttcacagaag atggaaatat cctgcagctt gctaacctgc ctgatctata caaagtcttt 2280 gagaggtgtt aaatatggtt atttatgcac tgtgggatgt gttcttcttt ctctgtattc 2340 cgatacaaag tgttgtatca aagtgtgata tacaaagtgt accaacataa gtgttggtag 2400 cacttaagac ttatacttgc cttctgatag tattccttta tacacagtgg attgattata 2460 aataaataga tgtgtcttaa cata 2484 hPMS2-134 protein MKQLPAATVR LLSSSQIITS VVSVVKELIE NSLDAGATSV DVKLENYGFD KIEVRDNGEG 60 IKAVDAPVMA MKYYTSKINS HEDLENLTTY GFRGEALGSI CCIAEVLITT RTAADNFSTQ 120 YVLDGSGHIL SQK 133 hPMS2-134 cDNA cgaggcggat cgggtgttgc atccatggag cgagctgaga gctcgagtac agaacctgct 60 aaggccatca aacctattga tcggaagtca gtccatcaga tttgctctgg gcaggtggta 120 ctgagtctaa gcactgcggt aaaggagtta gtagaaaaca gtctggatgc tggtgccact 180 aatattgatc taaagcttaa ggactatgga gtggatctta ttgaagtttc agacaatgga 240 tgtggggtag aagaagaaaa cttcgaaggc ttaactctga aacatcacac atctaagatt 300 caagagtttg ccgacctaac tcaggttgaa acttttggct ttcgggggga agctctgagc 360 tcactttgtg cactgagcga tgtcaccatt tctacctgcc acgcatcggc gaaggttgga 420 acttga 426 hMSH6 (human cDNA) ACCESSION U28946 MSRQSTLYSFFPKSPALSDANKASARASREGGRAAAAPGASPSPGGDAAWSEAGPGPRPLARSASPPKA KNLNGGLRRSVAPAAPTSCDFSPGDLVWAKMEGYPWWPCLVYNHPFDGTFIREKGKSVRVHVQFFDDSP TRGWVSKRLLKPYTGSKSKEAQKGGHFYSAKPEILRAMQRADEALNKDKIKRLELAVCDEPSEPEEEEE MEVGTTYVTDKSEEDNEIESEEEVQPKTQGSRRSSRQIKKRRVISDSESDIGGSDVEFKPDTKEEGSSD EISSGVGDSESEGLNSPVKVARKRKRMVTGNGSLKRKSSRKETPSATKQATSISSETKNTLRAFSAPQN SESQAHVSGGGDDSSRPTVWYHETLEWLKEEKRRDEHRRRPDHPDFDASTLYVPEDFLNSCTPGMRKWW QIKSQNFDLVICYKVGKFYELYHMDALIGVSELGLVFMKGNWAHSGFPEIAFGRYSDSLVQKGYKVARV EQTETPEMMEARCRKMAHISKYDRVVRREICRIITKGTQTYSVLEGDPSENYSKYLLSLKEKEEDSSGH TRAYGVCFVDTSLGKFFIGQFSDDRHCSRFRTLVAHYPPVQVLFEKGNLSKETKTILKSSLSCSLQEGL IPGSQFWDASKTLRTLLEEEYFREKLSDGIGVMLPQVLKGMTSESDSIGLTPGEKSELALSALGGCVFY LKKCLIDQELLSMANFEEYIPLDSDTVSTTRSGAIFTKAYQRMVLDAVTLNNLEIFLNGTNGSTEGTLL ERVDTCHTPFGKRLLKQWLCAPLCNHYAINDRLDAIEDLMVVPDKISEVVELLKKLPDLERLLSKIHNV GSPLKSQNHPDSRAIMYEETTYSKKKIIDFLSALEGFKVMCKIIGIMEEVADGFKSKILKQVISLQTKN PEGRFPDLTVELNRWDTAFDHEKARKTGLITPKAGFDSDYDQALADIRENEQSLLEYLEKQRNRIGCRT IVYWGIGRNRYQLEIPENFTTRNLPEEYELKSTKKGCKRYWTKTIEKKLANLINAEERRDVSLKDCMRR LFYNFDKNYKDWQSAVECIAVLDVLLCLANYSRGGDGPMCRPVILLPEDTPPFLELKGSRHPCITKTFF GDDFIPNDILIGCEEEEQENGKAYCVLVTGPNMGGKSTLMRQAGLLAVMAQMGCYVPAEVCRLTPIDRV FTRLGASDRIMSGESTFFVELSETASILMHATAHSLVLVDELGRGTATFDGTAIANAVVKELAETIKCR TLFSTHYHSLVEDYSQNVAVRLGHMACMVENECEDPSQETITFLYKFIKGACPKSYGFNAARLANLPEE VIQKGHRKAREFEKMNQSLRLFREVCLASERSTVDAEAVHKLLTLIKEL″ hPMSR2 (human cDNA) ACCESSION U38964    1 ggcgctccta cctgcaagtg gctagtgcca agtgctgggc cgccgctcct gccgtgcatg   61 ttggggagcc agtacatgca ggtgggctcc acacggagag gggcgcagac ccggtgacag  121 ggctttacct ggtacatcgg catggcgcaa ccaaagcaag agagggtggc gcgtgccaga  181 caccaacggt cggaaaccgc cagacaccaa cggtcggaaa ccgccaagac accaacgctc  241 ggaaaccgcc agacaccaac gctcggaaac cgccagacac caaggctcgg aatccacgcc  301 aggccacgac ggagggcgac tacctccctt ctgaccctgc tgctggcgtt cggaaaaaac  361 gcagtccggt gtgctctgat tggtccaggc tctttgacgt cacggactcg acctttgaca  421 gagccactag gcgaaaagga gagacgggaa gtattttttc cgccccgccc ggaaagggtg  481 gagcacaacg tcgaaagcag ccgttgggag cccaggaggc ggggcgcctg tgggagccgt  541 ggagggaact ttcccagtcc ccgaggcgga tccggtgttg catccttgga gcgagctgag  601 aactcgagta cagaacctgc taaggccatc aaacctattg atcggaagtc agtccatcag  661 atttgctctg ggccggtggt accgagtcta aggccgaatg cggtgaagga gttagtagaa  721 aacagtctgg atgctggtgc cactaatgtt gatctaaagc ttaaggacta tggagtggat  781 ctcattgaag tttcaggcaa tggatgtggg gtagaagaag aaaacttcga aggctttact  841 ctgaaacatc acacatgtaa gattcaagag tttgccgacc taactcaggt ggaaactttt  901 ggctttcggg gggaagctct gagctcactt tgtgcactga gtgatgtcac catttctacc  961 tgccgtgtat cagcgaaggt tgggactcga ctggtgtttg atcactatgg gaaaatcatc 1021 cagaaaaccc cctacccccg ccccagaggg atgacagtca gcgtgaagca gttattttct 1081 acgctacctg tgcaccataa agaatttcaa aggaatatta agaagaaacg tgcctgcttc 1141 cccttcgcct tctgccgtga ttgtcagttt cctgaggcct ccccagccat gcttcctgta 1201 cagcctgtag aactgactcc tagaagtacc ccaccccacc cctgctcctt ggaggacaac 1261 gtgatcactg tattcagctc tgtcaagaat ggtccaggtt cttctagatg atctgcacaa 1321 atggttcctc tcctccttcc tgatgtctgc cattagcatt ggaataaagt tcctgctgaa 1381 aatccaaaaa aaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaa hPMSR2 (human protein) ACCESSION U38964 MAQPKQERVARARHQRSETARHQRSETAKTPTLGNRQTPTLGNRQTPRLGIHARPRRRATTSLLTLLLA FGKNAVRCALIGPGSLTSRTRPLTEPLGEKERREVFFPPRPERVEHNVESSRWEPRRRGACGSRGGNFP SPRGGSGVASLERAENSSTEPAKAIKPIDRKSVHQICSGPVVPSLRPNAVKELVENSLDAGATNVDLKL KDYGVDLIEVSGNGCGVEEENFEGFTLKHHTCKIQEFADLTQVETFGFRGEALSSLCALSDVTISTCRV SAKVGTRLVFDHYGKIIQKTPYPRPRGMTVSVKQLFSTLPVHHKEFQRNIKKKRACFPFAFCRDCQFPE ASPAMLPVQPVELTPRSTPPHPCSLEDNVITVFSSVKNGPGSSR HPMSR3 (human cDNA) ACCESSION U38979    1 tttttagaaa ctgatgttta ttttccatca accatttttc catgctgctt aagagaatat   61 gcaagaacag cttaagacca gtcagtggtt gctcctaccc attcagtggc ctgagcagtg  121 gggagctgca gaccagtctt ccgtggcagg ctgagcgctc cagtcttcag tagggaattg  181 ctgaataggc acagagggca cctgtacacc ttcagaccag tctgcaacct caggctgagt  241 agcagtgaac tcaggagcgg gagcagtcca ttcaccctga aattcctcct tggtcactgc  301 cttctcagca gcagcctgct cttctttttc aatctcttca ggatctctgt agaagtacag  361 atcaggcatg acctcccatg ggtgttcacg ggaaatggtg ccacgcatgc gcagaacttc  421 ccgagccagc atccaccaca ttaaacccac tgagtgagct cccttgttgt tgcatgggat  481 ggcaatgtcc acatagcgca gaggagaatc tgtgttacac agcgcaatgg taggtaggtt  541 aacataagat gcctccgtga gaggcgaagg ggcggcggga cccgggcctg gcccgtatgt  601 gtccttggcg gcctagacta ggccgtcgct gtatggtgag ccccagggag gcggatctgg  661 gcccccagaa ggacacccgc ctggatttgc cccgtagccc ggcccgggcc cctcgggagc  721 agaacagcct tggtgaggtg gacaggaggg gacctcgcga gcagacgcgc gcgccagcga  781 cagcagcccc gccccggcct ctcgggagcc ggggggcaga ggctgcggag ccccaggagg  841 gtctatcagc cacagtctct gcatgtttcc aagagcaaca ggaaatgaac acattgcagg  901 ggccagtgtc attcaaagat gtggctgtgg atttcaccca ggaggagtgg cggcaactgg  961 accctgatga gaagatagca tacggggatg tgatgttgga gaactacagc catctagttt 1021 ctgtggggta tgattatcac caagccaaac atcatcatgg agtggaggtg aaggaagtgg 1081 agcagggaga ggagccgtgg ataatggaag gtgaatttcc atgtcaacat agtccagaac 1141 ctgctaaggc catcaaacct attgatcgga agtcagtcca tcagatttgc tctgggccag 1201 tggtactgag tctaagcact gcagtgaagg agttagtaga aaacagtctg gatgctggtg 1261 ccactaatat tgatctaaag cttaaggact atggagtgga tctcattgaa gtttcagaca 1321 atggatgtgg ggtagaagaa gaaaactttg aaggcttaat ctctttcagc tctgaaacat 1381 cacacatgta agattcaaga gtttgccgac ctaactgaag ttgaaacttt cggttttcag 1441 ggggaagctc tgagctcact gtgtgcactg agcgatgtca ccatttctac ctgccacgcg 1501 ttggtgaagg ttgggactcg actggtgttt gatcacgatg ggaaaatcat ccaggaaacc 1561 ccctaccccc accccagagg gaccacagtc agcgtgaagc agttattttc tacgctacct 1621 gtgcgccata aggaatttca aaggaatatt aagaagacgt gcctgcttcc ccttcgcctt 1681 ctgccgtgat tgtcagtttc ctgaggcctc cccagccatg cttcctgtac agcctgcaga 1741 actgtgagtc aattaaacct cttttcttca taaattaaaa aaaaa hPMSR3 (human protein) ACCESSION U38979 MCPWRPRLGRRCMVSPREADLGPQKDTRLDLPRSPARAPREQNSLGEVDRRGPREQTRAPATAAPPRPL GSRGAEAAEPQEGLSATVSACFQEQQEMNTLQGPVSFKDVAVDFTQEEWRQLDPDEKIAYGDVMLENYS HLVSVGYDYHQAKHHHGVEVKEVEQGEEPWIMEGEFPCQHSPEPAKAIKPIDRKSVHQICSGPVVLSLS TAVKELVENSLDAGATNIDLKLKDYGVDLIEVSDNGCGVEEENFEGLISFSSETSHM″ hPMSL9 (human cDNA) ACCESSION NM_005395    1 atgtgtcctt ggcggcctag actaggccgt cgctgtatgg tgagccccag ggaggcggat   61 ctgggccccc agaaggacac ccgcctggat ttgccccgta gcccggcccg ggcccctcgg  121 gagcagaaca gccttggtga ggtggacagg aggggacctc gcgagcagac gcgcgcgcca  181 gcgacagcag ccccgccccg gcctctcggg agccgggggg cagaggctgc ggagccccag  241 gagggtctat cagccacagt ctctgcatgt ttccaagagc aacaggaaat gaacacattg  301 caggggccag tgtcattcaa agatgtggct gtggatttca cccaggagga gtggcggcaa  361 ctggaccctg atgagaagat agcatacggg gatgtgatgt tggagaacta cagccatcta  421 gtttctgtgg ggtatgatta tcaccaagcc aaacatcatc atggagtgga ggtgaaggaa  481 gtggagcagg gagaggagcc gtggataatg gaaggtgaat ttccatgtca acatagtcca  541 gaacctgcta aggccatcaa acctattgat cggaagtcag tccatcagat ttgctctggg  601 ccagtggtac tgagtctaag cactgcagtg aaggagttag tagaaaacag tctggatgct  661 ggtgccacta atattgatct aaagcttaag gactatggag tggatctcat tgaagtttca  721 gacaatggat gtggggtaga agaagaaaac tttgaaggct taatctcttt cagctctgaa  781 acatcacaca tgtaa hPMSL9 (human protein) ACCESSION NM_005395 MCPWRPRLGRRCMVSPREADLGPQKDTRLDLPRSPARAPREQNSLGEVDRRGPREQTRAPATAAPPRPL GSRGAEAAEPQEGLSATVSACFQEQQEMNTLQGPVSFKDVAVDFTQEEWRQLDPDEKIAYGDVMLENYS HLVSVGYDYHQAKHHHGVEVKEVEQGEEPWIMEGEFPCQHSPEPAKAIKPIDRKSVHQICSGPVVLSLS TAVKELVENSLDAGATNIDLKLKDYGVDLIEVSDNGCGVEEENFEGLISFSSETSHM″

REFERENCES

-   1. Attfield, P. V. and Pinney, R. J. 985. Elimination of multicopy     plasmid R6K by bleomycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.     27(6):985-988. -   2. Baker S. M., Bronner, C. E., Zhang, L., Plug, A. W., Robatez, M.,     Warren, G., Elliott, E. A., Yu, J., Ashley, T., Arnheim, N.,     Bradley, N., Flavell, R. A., and Liskay, R. M. 1995. Male defective     in the DNA mismatch repair gene PMS2 exhibit abnormal chromosome     synapsis in meiosis. Cell 82:309-319. -   3. Berry, A. 1996. Improving production of aromatic compounds in     Escherichia coli by metabolic engineering. Trends Biotechnol.     14(7):250-256. -   4. Bronner, C. E., Baker, S. M., Morrison, P. T., Warren, G.,     Smith, L. G., Lescoe, M. K., Kane, M., Earabino, C., Lipford, J.,     Lindblom, A., Tannergard, P., Bollag, R. J., Godwin, A., R.,     Ward, D. C., Nordenskjold, M., Fishel, R., Kolodner, R., and     Liskay, R. M. 1994. Mutation in the DNA mismatch repair gene     homologue hMLH1 is associated with hereditary non-polyposis colon     cancer. Nature 368:258-261. -   5. de Wind N., Dekker, M., Bems, A., Radman, M., and     Riele, H. T. 1995. Inactivation of the mouse Msh2 gene results in     mismatch repair deficiency, methylation tolerance,     hyperrecombination, and predisposition to cancer. Cell 82:321-300. -   6. Drummond, J. T., Li, G. M., Longley, M. J., and Modrich, P. 1995.     Isolation of an hMSH2-p 160 heterodimer that restores mismatch     repair to tumor cells. Science 268:1909-1912. -   7. Drummond, J. T., Anthoney, A., Brown, R., and Modrich, P. 1996.     Cisplatin and adriamycin resistance are associated with MutLa and     mismatch repair deficiency in an ovarian tumor cell line. J. Biol.     Chem. 271:9645-19648. -   8. Edelmann, W., Cohen, P. E., Kane, M., Lau, K., Morrow, B.,     Bennett, S., Umar, A., Kunkel, T., Cattoretti, G., Chagnatti, R.,     Pollard, J. W., Kolodner, R. D., and Kucherlapati, R. 1996. Meiotic     pachytene arrest in MLH1-deficient mice. Cell 85:1125-1134. -   9. Fishel, R., Lescoe, M., Rao, M. R. S., Copeland, N. J.,     Jenkins, N. A., Garber, J., Kane, M., and Kolodner, R. 1993. The     human mutator gene homolog MSH2 and its association with hereditary     nonpolyposis colon cancer. Cell 7:1027-1038. -   10. Fu, K. P., Grace, M. E., Hsiao, C. L., and Hung, P. P. 1988.     Elinination of antibiotic-resistant plasmids by quinolone     antibiotics. Chemotherapy 34(5):415-418. -   11. Leach, F. S., Nicolaides, N. C, Papadopoulos, N., Liu, B., Jen,     J., Parsons, R., Peltomaki, P., Sistonen, P., Aaltonen, L. A.,     Nystrom-Lahti, M., Guan, X. Y., Zhang, J., Meltzer, P. S., Yu, J.     W., Kao, F. T., Chen, D. J., Cerosaletti, K. M., Fournier, R. E. K.,     Todd, S., Lewis, T., Leach R. J., Naylor, S. L., Weissenbach, J.,     Mecklin, J. P., Jarvinen, J. A., Petersen, G. M., Hamilton, S. R.,     Green, J., Jass, J., Watson, P., Lynch, H. T., Trent, J. M., de la     Chapelle, A., Kinzler, K. W., and Vogelstein, B. 1993. Mutations of     a mutS homolog in hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer. Cell     75:1215-1225. -   12. Li, G.-M., and Modrich, P. 1995. Restoration of mismatch repair     to nuclear extracts of H6 colorectal tumor cells by a heterodimer of     human mutL homologs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:1950-1954. -   13. Liu, B., Parsons, R., Papadopoulos, N., Nicolaides, N. C.,     Lynch, H. T., Watson, P., Jass, J. R., Dunlop, M., Wyllie, A.,     Peltomaki, P., de la Chapelle, A., Hamilton, S. R., Vogelstein, B.,     and Kinzler, K. W. 1996. Analysis of mismatch repair genes in     hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer patients. Nat. Med.     2:169-174. -   14. Modrich, P. 1994. Mismatch repair, genetic stability, and     cancer. Science 266:1959-1960. -   15. Nicolaides, N. C., Gualdi, R., Casadevall, C., Manzella, L., and     Calabretta, B. 1991. Positive autoregulation of c-myb expression via     MYB binding in the 5′ flanking region of the human c-myb gene. Mol.     Cell. Biol. 11:6166-6176. -   16. Nicolaides, N. C., Correa, I., Casadevall, C., Travali, S.,     Soprano, K. J., and Calabretta, B. 1992. The Jun family members,     c-JUN and JUND, transactivate the human c-myb promoter via an Ap1     like element. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 19665-19672. -   17. Nicolaides, N. C., Papadopoulos, N., Liu, B., Wei, Y. F.,     Carter, K. C., Ruben, S. M., Rosen, C. A., Haseltine, W. A.,     Fleischmann, R. D., Fraser, C. M., Adams, M. D., Venter, C. J.,     Dunlop, M. G., Hamilton, S. R., Petersen, G. M., de la Chapelle, A.,     Vogelstein, B., and kinzler, K. W. 1994. Mutations of two PMS     homologs in hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer. Nature 371: 75-80. -   18. Nicolaides N. C., Kinzler, K. W., and Vogelstein, B. 1995.     Analysis of the 5′ region of PMS2 reveals heterogenous transcripts     and a novel overlapping gene. Genomics 29:329-334. -   19. Nicolaides, N. C., Carter, K. C., Shell, B. K., Papadopoulos,     N., Vogelstein, B., and Kinzler, K. W. 1995. Genomic organization of     the human PMS2 gene family. Genomics 30:195-206. -   20. Nicolaides, N. C., Palombo, F., Kinzler, K. W., Vogelstein, B.,     and Jiricny, J. 1996. Molecular cloning of the N-terminus of GTBP.     Genomics 31:395-397. -   21. Palombo, F., Hughes, M., Jiricny, J., Truong, O.,     Hsuan, J. 1994. Mismatch repair and cancer. Nature 36:417. -   22. Palombo, F., Gallinari, P., Iaccarino, I., Lettieri, T.,     Hughes, M. A., Truong, O., Hsuan, J. J., and Jiricny, J. 1995. GTBP,     a 160-kilodalton protein essential for mismatch-binding activity in     human cells. Science 268:1912-1914. -   23. Pang, Q., Prolla, T. A., and Liskay, R. M. 1997. Functional     domains of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mlh1p and Pms1p DNA mismatch     repair proteins and their relevance to human hereditary nonpolyposis     colorectal cancer-associated mutations. Mol. Cell. Biol.     17:4465-4473. -   24. Papadopoulos, N., Nicolaides, N. C., Wei, Y. F., Carter, K. C.,     Ruben, S. M., Rosen, C. A., Haseltine, W. A., Fleischmann, R. D.,     Fraser, C. M., Adams, M. D., Venter, C. J., Dunlop, M. G.,     Hamilton, S. R., Petersen, G. M., de la Chapelle, A., Vogelstein,     B., and kinzler, K. W. 1994. Mutation of a mutL homolog is     associated with hereditary colon cancer. Science 263: 1625-1629. -   25. Parsons, R., Li, G. M., Longley, M. J., Fang, W. H.,     Papadopolous, N., Jen, J., de la Chapelle, A., Kinzler, K. W.,     Vogelstein, B., and Modrich, P. 1993. Hypermutability and mismatch     repair deficiency in RER⁺ tumor cells. Cell 75:1227-1236. -   26. Parsons, R., Li, G. M., Longley, M., Modrich, P., Liu, B., Berk,     T., Hamilton, S. R., Kinzler, K. W., and Vogelstein, B. 1995.     Mismatch repair deficiency in phenotypically normal human cells.     Science 268:738-740. -   27. Perucho, M. 1996. Cancer of the microsattelite mutator     phenotype. Biol. Chem. 377:675-684. -   28. Prolla, T. A, Pang, Q., Alani, E., Kolodner, R. A., and     Liskay, R. M. 1994. MLH1, PMS1, and MSH2 Interaction during the     initiation of DNA mismatch repair in yeast. Science 264:1091-1093. -   29. Strand, M., Prolla, T. A., Liskay, R. M., and Petes, T. D.     Destabilization of tracts of simple repetitive DNA in yeast by     mutations affecting DNA mismatch repair. 1993. Nature 365:274-276. -   30. Studier, F. W. Use of bacteriophage T7 lysozyme to improve an     inducible T7 expression system. 1991. J. Mol. Biol. 219(1):37-44. -   31. Su, S. S., Lahue, R. S., Au, K. G., and Modrich, P. 1988.     Mispair specificity of methyl directed DNA mismatch corrections in     vitro. J. Biol. Chem. 263:6829-6835. -   32. Nicolaides N C, Littman S J, Modrich P, Kinzler K W, Vogelstein     B 1998. A naturally occurring hPMS2 mutation can confer a dominant     negative mutator phenotype. Mol Cell Biol 18: 1635-1641. -   33. Aronshtam A, Marinus M G. 1996. Dominant negative mutator     mutations in the mutL gene of Escherichia coli. Nucleic Acids Res     24:2498-2504. -   34. Wu T H, Marinus M G. 1994. Dominant negative mutator mutations     in the mutS gene of Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 176:5393-400. -   35. Brosh R M Jr, Matson S W. 1995. Mutations in motif II of     Escherichia coli DNA helicase II render the enzyme nonfunctional in     both mismatch repair and excision repair with differential effects     on the unwinding reaction. J Bacteriol 177:5612-5621. -   36. Studamire B, Quach T, Alani, E. 1998. Saccharomyces cerevisiae     Msh2p and Msh6p ATPase activities are both required during mismatch     repair. Mol Cell Biol 18:7590-7601. -   37. Alani E, Sokolsky T, Studamire B, Miret J J, Lahue R S. 1997.     Genetic and biochemical analysis of Msh2p-Msh6p: role of ATP     hydrolysis and Msh2p-Msh6p subunit interactions in mismatch base     pair recognition. Mol Cell Biol 17:2436-2447. -   38. Lipkin S M, Wang V, Jacoby R, Banerjee-Basu S, Baxevanis A D,     Lynch H T, Elliott R M, and Collins F S. 2000. MLH3: a DNA mismatch     repair gene associated with mammalian microsatellite instability.     Nat Genet. 24:27-35. -   39. Lee C C, Lin H K, Lin J K. 1994. A reverse mutagenicity assay     for alkylating agents based on a point mutation in the     beta-lactamase gene at the active site serine codon. Mutagenesis     9:401-405. -   40. Vidal A, Abril N, Pueyo C. 1995. DNA repair by Ogt     alkyltransferase influences EMS mutational specificity.     Carcinogenesis 16:817-821. -   41. Fu, K. P., Grace, M. E., Hsiao, C. L., and Hung, P. P. 1988.     Elimination of antibiotic-resistant plasmids by quinolone     antibiotics. Chem. Abstracts 34(5):415-418. -   42. BiWang, H., ZhiPeng, H., and Xiong, G. 1999. Transformation of     Escherichia coli and Bacillus thuringiensis and their plasmid curing     by electroporation. J. of Fujian Agricultural University     28(1):43-46. -   43. Brosius, J. 1988. Expression vectors employing lambda-, trp-,     lac-, and lpp-derived promoters. Biotechnology 10:205-225. 

1. A method for making a hypermutable bacterium comprising the steps of: expressing in a bacterium a polynucleotide encoding a PMS2 protein comprising an ATPase domain, wherein the PMS2 protein is capable of inhibiting mismatch repair, wherein the polynucleotide is operable linked to a promoter, whereby said bacterium becomes hypermutable.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the PMS2 protein is PMS2-134, PMS2, PMSR2, or PMSR3.
 3. A method for making a genetically stable, mutated bacterium comprising the steps of: expressing in a bacterium a polynucleotide encoding a PMS2 protein comprising an ATPase domain, wherein the PMS2 protein is capable of inhibiting mismatch repair, wherein the polynucleotide is operable linked to a promoter; and restoring mismatch repair activity to said bacterium, thereby producing a genetically stable mutated bacterium.
 4. The method of claim 3 wherein the PMS2 protein is PMS2-134, PMS2, PMSR2, or PMSR3.
 5. A method for generating a genetically altered bacterial cell line, the method comprising: introducing a polynucleotide encoding a PMS2 protein, wherein said PMS2 protein comprises an ATPase domain and has the ability to inhibit mismatch repair, said polynucleotide operably linked to a promoter, in a population of bacterial cells in culture, thereby inhibiting mismatch repair in said cells, separating said population into individual members of the population, identifying members of the population comprising a mutation in a gene of interest, restoring mismatch repair activity to said members of the population comprising a mutation in the gene of interest, and expanding said members comprising a mutation in the gene of interest, thereby generating a genetically altered bacterial cell population.
 6. The method of claim 5 wherein the PMS2 protein is PMS2-134, PMS2, PMSR2, or PMSR3. 